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THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 








THE MOSLEM W 
OAS. INO RAB AN 


EDITED, WITH A FOREWORD AND CLOSING CHAPTER, 
BY 


JOHN R.YMOTT 


CHAIRMAN, INTERNATIONAL MISSIONARY COUNCIL 


NEW YORK 
GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY 


First published « » »« 1925 


Made and Printed in Great Britain. 
Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury. 


FOREWORD 


THE Moslem world of to-day is markedly different from 
that of yesterday. The social and religious system of 
Islam, for centuries the most rigid, exclusive, resistant, 
and, as some would say, the most intolerant of all, 
has during the first quarter of the present century, 
and notably during the last decade, been undergoing 
stupendous and well-nigh unbelievable changes. Almost 
every Moslem land—in Africa, in Western, Central, and 
Southern Asia, and in the East Indies—is ablaze with new 
national and social aspirations and ambitions. Through- 
out these vast regions the traveller in these days is 
vividly conscious of the thrill of a new life. On every 
hand he finds an earnest struggle to achieve a political 
organization of a more democratic and constitutional 
form. This is often coupled, however, with pronounced 
hostility to Western governments. The most remarkable 
event of all has been the abolition of the Caliphate. The 
effect of this startling development has been like dropping 
from its place the keystone of an arch, for true it is 
that the Caliphate has been the binding centre of the 
extensive and imposing arch of Pan-Islamism. This 
weakening of the sense of solidarity and moral unity of 
the Moslem peoples will be felt increasingly. In profound 
and far-reaching significance it may be likened to the 
break-up of the Holy Roman Empire. Almost as 


vil 


viii FOREWORD 


wonderful has been the social upheaval, the most im- 
pressive evidence of which is the elevation in so many 
Moslem countries of the status of women. 

The renaissance of Arabic culture, the rapid multi- 
plication of periodicals and of book and pamphlet 
literature, the great increase in the numbers of Moslem 
youth in schools and colleges of Western learning, and 
the rising and surging tide of new thought, all bear 
witness to a notable intellectual awakening. The new 
search for truth and the ferment of dynamic and even of 
revolutionary ideas are exerting a great emancipating, 
liberalizing, and transforming influence. The larger 
political and intellectual freedom leads inevitably to 
greater religious freedom. Reactionary conservatism, 
inertia, and intolerance are giving way to the spirit of 
scientific inquiry. Moslem teachers and writers reveal 
that they have a growing realization of the weaknesses 
of Islam as a religion to meet the social, national, and 
international demands of the modern age or to satisfy 
the searching questions of the mind and the deeper 
longings of the heart. They seem to be aware of the 
disintegrating processes within and the dangerous im- 
pacts from without. With increasing numbers of Moslems 
the old complacency has given way to a genuine solicitude 
and to a hopeful spirit of reform. A re-evaluation of 
Islam as a religion is taking place, and Moslem thinkers 
are seeking to restate both their offensive and their 
defensive apologetic. 

A Moslem world undergoing such varied, such exten- 
sive, such profound, and such momentous changes is 
of supreme interest and concern to all Christendom. 
As a matter of fact, the attention of Christians is to-day 
riveted on Islam as at no time since the Moslem invasion 
of Europe. And well it may be. The position, trends, 


FOREWORD 1x 


and purposes of a religion of over 230,000,000 adherents 
necessarily have large meaning to the Christian religion, 
with its world mission and programme. The fact that 
possibly as many as seven out of every eight Moslems in 
the world are living under the flag of one or another 
Christian nation serves to accentuate their significance 
to all who bear the Christian name. The attitude and 
welfare of the followers of Islam have a vital bearing 
on the international and interracial relations of man- 
kind, and, therefore, on the peace of the world. Now 
that the world has found itself as one body, it can no 
longer be a subject of indifference to any part of the 
world, and most certainly not to any Christian people, 
what conditions obtain and what the tendencies, ideals, 
and ambitions are in any other part. Such vital and 
burning issues as we see now absorbing the Moslem 
peoples present a challenge and an opportunity to the 
Christian faith. The threatened and impending dis- 
integration of Islam calls for an adequate substitute. 
Only Christ and His programme can meet the need. 
The new generation in whose hands rests the destiny of 
all the Moslem lands—a generation which has so recently 
come under the spell of the modern age, and whose 
brain and heart are beginning to surge with new thought 
and social passion—make an irresistible appeal to 
Christians everywhere to present in their message, in 
their lives, and in their relationships, a winning and 
convincing apologetic. 

This matter of the attitude of Christians and of 
Christian nations toward Islam and its adherents is 
most vital and pressing. What the attitude of Christians 
is to be will determine that of Islam to Christendom. 
Great is the need of Christianizing the impact of the 
so-called Christian nations upon the Moslem world. It 


x FOREWORD 


is to be feared that much of the diplomacy, the territorial 
designs, the administrative policy, and the commercial 
activities of Christian Powers have been and still are 
non-Christian as judged by their effects. The spread 
of Western materialism and of the corrupt influences 
of modern civilization, unless the adequate counteracting 
and transforming energies of vital Christianity are more 
largely brought to bear, will result in making the last 
state of Moslem lands worse than the first. 

There is need, likewise, on the part of the Christian 
movement, as it comes to the Moslem world, of exercising 
larger toleration. Happily the modern approach of 
Christian missionaries to Moslems is a much more positive, 
constructive, fraternal, and co-operative one than 
generally obtained in earlier days. Only as the pro- 
gramme of Christianity is based upon a sympathetic 
understanding of the Moslems (and upon unselfish co- 
operative service with them) is there any prospect of 
winning them, but along that pathway there is infinite 
hope. With such intimate and helpful contacts, and 
with such an atmosphere of faith as this attitude and 
practice will afford, there must be presented the message 
of the living Christ and His redemptive Gospel. In 
this way only will there be broken the spell of fear, 
fatalism, and despair which rests upon multitudes of 
Moslems, and will there be imparted to their lives the 
superhuman faith, freedom, and hope which only He 
communicates to men. 

The twenty-three papers which constitute this volume 
of composite authorship present with real comprehension 
and living interest many of the more important aspects 
of the Moslem world of to-day and describe the causes 
underlying the tremendous changes which have taken 
place in Islam in recent years. They show convincingly 


FOREWORD x1 


why this situation is one of urgent interest and concern 
to all Christendom. With penetration and sympathy 
they reveal the attitude which should characterize 
Christian nations and Christian Churches, as well as 
individual Christian workers. The authors of the various 
papers have been in intimate and vital contact with 
Islam, most of them for a long period of years. Their 
interest has not been merely academic but one of heart 
concern as well. They have prepared their contributions 
without collaboration with one another. The aim in 
the volume has not been to present a complete and 
symmetrical treatment of all aspects of Islam, nor to 
treat all Moslem lands, but rather to present a composite 
view of those phases of the subject which to-day are of 
most living interest and which most need to be lifted 
into prominence. 

The editor has made no attempt to unify the points 
of view of various authors. Because of this fact it is 
somewhat remarkable to find such a consensus among 
so large a group of writers of widely differing background, 
experience, and outlook. In order to bring the volume 
within the desired limits, and to avoid certain repetition, 
it has been necessary to abridge a few of the papers. 
It need hardly be added that each writer is responsible 
for the views set forth in his paper. 

We have been unable to provide references for all 
quotations because of inability to reach certain of the 
writers within the time limit set for publication. More- 
over, it has been impossible to be entirely consistent 
in transliterating Arabic and other oriental terms. 
General usage has been followed rather than scholastic 
precision attempted. Particular recognition is given 
to Henry H. King and Charles H. Fahs for their pains- 
taking collaboration in the processes of editing and 


X11 FOREWORD 


proof-reading. We are also under obligation to Professor — 
J. C. Archer of Yale University, Professor R. 5. Mc- 
Clenahan of the American University at Cairo, and 
Professor W. G. Shellabear of the Hartford Seminary 
Foundation for bringing their expert knowledge to bear 
in the review of the various manuscripts and for many 
invaluable suggestions. Thanks are also due to the 
editors of Zhe International Review of Missions for 
permission to use in amended form the materials of the 
last chapter. 
Joun R. Mort. 


CHAPTER 


If 


II. 


III. 


TV 


VII. 


CONTENTS 


FOREWORD 
Joun R. Mott 


THE IMPACT AND INFLUENCE OF WESTERN 


CIVILIZATION ON THE ISLAMIC WORLD 
JamMEs L. BARTON 


-THE RENAISSANCE IN THE MOSLEM NEAR 


EAST : : : : : 
JuLius RICHTER 


THE CALIPHATE YESTERDAY, TO-DAY, AND 
TO-MORROW : 3 é g ‘ 
D. S$; MARGOLIOUTH 


THE INSTITUTION OF THE CALIPHATE AND 
THE SPIRIT OF THE AGE . } ; 
ANONYMOUS 


FERMENTS IN THE YOUTH OF ISLAM : 
Basin MATHEWS 


ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM . ‘ 
C. SNoucK HURGRONJE 


THE REACTION OF MOSLEM INDIA TO 
WESTERN ISLAM ‘ F J i 


MurRRAY T. Titus 
xiii 


PAGE 


Vii 


21 


33 


47 


61 


79 


a5 


X1V 
CHAPTER 


VIII. 


IX. 


XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


XV. 


CONTENTS 


THE PRESENT ATTITUDE OF CHRISTENDOM 
TO THE PEOPLES OF THE MOSLEM WORLD 


Joun E. MERRILL 


PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM IN THE WORLD 


OF ISLAM . , ‘ : u ; 
SAMUEL M. ZWEMER 


SoME TYPES OF LITERATURE IN THE 


WoRLD oF ISLAM ; : y : 
CONSTANCE E. PADWICK 


WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM 
WoRLD—FORCES, PURPOSE, AND RE- 
SULTS ; ‘ ; : } : 

WILLIAM H. HALL 


WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM 
WoRLD—CHANGING FACTORS fk ; 
PauL MONROE 


INFLUENCES TOWARDS A NEW ART IN 
EGYPT AND PALESTINE ‘ , : 
W. A. STEWART 


MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN 
THE ISLAMIC WORLD—THE NEAR AND 
MIDDLE EAST . : : : : 

CAROLINE M; BUCHANAN 


MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN 
IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD—NORTH-WEST 
AFRICA, ; : ‘ £ y 

I, Lirias TROTTER 


[PAGE 


ish BH 


123 


157 


169 


183 


199 


2iI 


231 


CHAPTER 


VG 
XVII. 
XVIII. 


XIX. 
XX. 
XXII. 


AXIT. 


AXITI. 


CONTENTS 


MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN 
THE ISLAMIC WORLD—INDIA i: é 
RutH E. ROBINSON 


THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND 
ISLAM : : ; : ; : 
RENNIE MAcINNES AND HERBERT DANBY 


ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES AND 
THE EVANGELIZATION OF THE MOSLEMS 
W. H. T. GAIRDNER 


THE MysTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM . 
GEORGE SWAN 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC . 
ARTHUR JEFFERY 


CHRIST'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSLEM , 
PauL W. HARRISON 


THE IssuE BETWEEN ISLAM AND CHRIS- 
TIANTU YS Ors 4 : ; , 
ROBERT E, SPEER 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD . 
Joun R. Mott 
APPENDIX . . ; ; 


XV 


PAGE 


249 


263 


279 


291 


305 


325 


341 


361 


383 


391 





THE IMPACT AND INFLUENCE OF WESTERN 
CIVILIZATION ON THE ISLAMIC WORLD 


BY THE REV. 
JAMES L. BARTON, D.D., LL.D., 


Senior Foreign Secretary, American Board of Commissioners 
for Foreign Missions 





CHAPTER I 


THE IMPACT AND INFLUENCE OF WESTERN 
CIVILIZATION ON THE ISLAMIC WORLD 


IsLAM, in its doctrine, its traditions, and its practices, 
has been declared to be stereotyped beyond possibility 
of change. Principal Fairbairn,! Sir William Muir,’ 
Lord Cromer,’ William Gifford Palgrave,‘ Lord Houghton,’ 
and Stanley Lane-Poole, as well as others, have taken 
the ground that Islam is inflexible, unprogressive, in- 
capable of adapting itself to new conditions, stationary. 
Palgrave says: “It justly repudiates all change, all 
development,’’ and Lord Houghton adds: ‘‘ Whatever 
savours of vitality is by that alone convicted of heresy 
and defection.”’ 

If this is true, then we should expect little influence 
on the Islamic world from contacts with Western civiliza- 
tion. While theoretically Islam may not change in form 
or in practice, the fact remains that marked modifications 
have taken place, especially within this generation, and 
many others are indicated. Most of the divisions in 
Islam are evidence of internal change both in beliefs 
and in practices. 


1 Contemporary Review, 1881, p. 806. 

2 Annals of the Early Caliphate, London, 1883, p. 459. 

3 Modern Egypt, New York, 1908, vol. 2, p. 202. 

4 Narration of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern 
Arabia, London, 1865, vol. 1, p. 372. 

5 Quoted by Samuel Graham Wilson, Modevn Movements 
Among Moslems, New York, 1916, p. 12. 

3 


4. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


We shall consider, first, what are the impacts between 
Islam and the Western world; and, secondly, what 
influences upon Islam are resulting from these impacts. 

Since Islam ceased to expand by conquest, Moslems 
have remained largely aloof from the rest of mankind. 
Also in the world of art, literature, education, science, 
commerce, and civilization they have seemed to occupy 
spheres by themselves. They generally occupy areas 
not attractive to the ordinary traveller and commercial 
agent. Moslems have not sought outside contacts, and 
have offered little inducement for the approach of other 
peoples. It is only within this generation that the 
Islamic world has experienced the shock of external 
impacts. These have come about through a variety of 
sources and of changed conditions. 

In the first place, Mohammedan countries have been 
invaded by Western tourists and travellers in increasing 
numbers and for various purposes. At the same time, 
many Moslems have found their way into Western lands. 
This intervisitation has been facilitated by newly con- 
structed railroads, steamship lines, and automobile 
routes. Railroads in India, Turkey, Persia, Syria, Egypt, 
North Africa, and even in Arabia are comparatively 
recent. Public automobiles are in regular service in 
North Africa, Arabia, India, Persia, and in many other 
_ Moslem countries. The Moslem world has begun to 
travel, and Moslem lands are being invaded by travellers, 
concessionnaires, and commercial agents from the outside. 

The minds of the Moslem youth have been awakened 
from the lethargy of centuries, furthermore, by the 
impact of Western learning. Modern education has 
entered most Moslem countries. Up-to-date colleges 
and universities have been established in many of the 
great Moslem centres. Mohammedan youth were slow 


IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION’ 5 


to avail themselves of the advantages these institutions 
offered. Taking note, however, of the advantages 
gained by non-Moslem students through Western 
learning, Moslem youth have begun to seek these ad- 
vantages for themselves. In increasing numbers Moslem 
men have sought education abroad in most of the great 
centres of learning in Europe and America. The attend- 
ance of Moslem students in mission schools and in 
modern institutions in Moslem lands has greatly in- 
creased since 1920. Western schools in Turkey and 
Persia are overcrowded, and are turning away Moslem 
students who are almost demanding admission. Among 
Moslems in India school attendance has risen from 
3 per cent. thirty years ago to 15 per cent. at the 
present time. Mohammedans of the East Indies, and, 
in fact, of nearly all Moslem lands, are seeking modern 
education. 

A third means of contact with non-Moslem lands has 
been an increased knowledge of Western languages. 
Modern events have demonstrated to the Islamic world 
that Arabic and native vernaculars alone are inadequate 
to meet the demands of the present age. While they 
may regard Arabic as a sacred language, Moslems are 
discovering that it is not the language of world commerce 
or of that learning which permits profitable contact 
with the West. European languages have necessarily 
found a place in the more advanced modern Islamic 
schools, while from the first these languages have con- 
stituted an important part in the curricula of all Western 
schools in Moslem countries. English, French, and 
German have commanded the largest places. 

With the acquisition of a Western language there 
inevitably follow a desire and a demand for literature 
in that language. This influence, constantly upon the 


6 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


increase, is arousing new ambitions and is implanting 
in the minds of this Moslem generation ideas out of 
harmony with tradition. Eighteen sets of the Ency- 
clopedia Britannica were sold in two years to Arab 
customers by a single book-shop in Iraq. New ideas 
which have no place in the old Islamic scheme of the 
universe are coming in like a flood. 

The effect of the war has been revolutionary and 
startling. Moslems of many countries were involved, 
and upon different sides in the conflict. The Arab and 
the Turk, the Turk and the Indian Moslem, fought each 
other. In nearly all of the national armies there were 
Moslem contingents. The call for a 7zhad had failed, and 
Moslem was arrayed against Moslem in deadly combat. 
Nationalism came to the front and religion receded. The 
war took Moslems into lands strange to them and among 
peoples hitherto unknown. Old seclusions were forcibly 
broken up. Moslems of many races were thrown into 
a whirlpool of nations. 

The spectacle of Christian arrayed against Christian 
revealed the lack of solidarity in the Christian world 
and destroyed in the minds of many Moslem leaders 
that fear of and respect for the Christian domination of 
Moslem races. The Indian Moslems caught new visions 
of independence. The Arabs dreamed of a new Arab 
kingdom. Egypt determined to throw off a foreign 
yoke. North Africa entertained a hope of autonomous 
self-government. Persia adopted a constitution. Turkey 
achieved a new measure of independence. The Moham- 
medan world awoke from the war with ideals of democracy 
as opposed to the old conception of theocracy. 

Among the influences and results of the impact of 
Western life upon the Islamic world, the first to be 
considered is the multiplication of contacts which have 


IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION (! 


forced intelligent and observing Moslems to note the 
differences between the two civilizations. This has led 
to sharp discussions as to the merits and demerits of the 
two. The place of women among the nations of the 
East is a matter of comment. The low state of education 
in Moslem countries, and especially among women, has 
been interpreted as one of the chief causes for the back- 
ward state of Islamic civilization. It is only within the 
last few years that the Persians have begun to realize 
the vast superiority of Occidental education. In Arabia 
there is a growing conviction that Islam is not up-to-date, 
that the powerful nations in the West have won their 
place in the world through education and through better 
social laws. The educated Moslems of all countries are 
beginning to see the economic and social values in modern 
philosophic and scientific principles and in Western 
social and economic truths. The pull is towards those 
ideals prevalent among Christian nations and away from 
traditional Islam. 

S. Khuda Bukhsh, an Indian Moslem and an Oxford 
graduate, contrasts many of the customs of Islam with 
those of Christian nations to the detriment of the former. 
The present Turkish Government has gone to the extreme 
limit in officially adopting national, economic, and social 
lawsand regulations which forcenturies have been regarded 
as contrary to the teachings of Islam. The abrogation 
of the Caliphate and the expulsion of the Caliph was a 
radical and startling step taken in order to prevent 
interference in the modernization of Turkey by an 
unprogressive religious hierarchy. 

Eshref Edib Bey made the following statement in 
St. Sophia in Constantinople to a vast Turkish audience : 

“In an epoch when all the inhabitants of the earth 
are advancing into new realms of science, in a period 


8 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


when all cities and all nations are going through an 
evolution toward a final ideal, let us escape from this 
laziness which has caught us in its grasp. Let us free 
our lives from this dark veil of ignorance.” ! 

When intelligent Moslems began to appreciate the 
deficiencies in their own systems they began to agitate 
for better education among their own peoples. This 
movement for better schools has already gained great 
momentum in Persia, Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, North 
Africa, and Malaysia. Moslems in India are establishing 
colleges like the Moslem colleges at Aligarh, Vaniyambadi, 
Peshawar, Hyderabad, and Lahore. Even the Amir 
of Afghanistan, in his earnestness to spread education, 
has instituted travelling schools for nomadic tribes. 
French, Italian, and German professors and doctors 
have been imported to conduct the more important of 
the national schools. Christian Literature in Moslem 
Lands reports that “ there is a striking post-war desire 
for education, and there are crowded schools everywhere. 
Ability to read is everywhere coveted,” 

Social changes are no less revolutionary. This fact 
is most apparent in the new freedom for women and 
in the agitation over plural marriages, hitherto assumed 
to be one of the constant features of Islam. An educated 
Indian Moslem recently spoke of the hideous deformity 
of Moslem society, and of the vice and immorality, the 
selfishness, self-seeking, and hypocrisy which are corrupt- 
ing it throughout the world. 

A prominent Turkish lawyer in Constantinople who 
recently printed a series of six articles in one of the 
leading Turkish papers of that city upon the subject 
of marriage and divorce, says : 


+ Reported to the writer by a missionary of the American 
Board, 


IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 9 


“ The younger men revolt against the Moslem custom, 
and declare that such things ought not to be allowed in 
the twentieth century. These younger men look upon 
Moslem polygamy and divorce as a curious antique.” } 
The author advocates the promulgation of a law forbidding 
the marriage of more than one wife. He also declares 
that Turkish women are demanding the registration and 
publication of marriages, “‘ a custom adopted everywhere 
in the world.” This forceful article called out but 
little protest. The founder of the sect in the Punjab, 
India, known as “‘ the people of the Koran,’ says that 
he considers polygamy as bad as fornication. A National 
Assembly of Albanians recently held at Tirana declared 
that their fundamental principles of independence include 
the prohibition of polygamy and the abolition of the 
wearing of the yashmak used by women to cover their 
faces. In Turkey and in Persia the use of the veil by 
women is rapidly becoming obsolete. 

This sweeping social change affecting the place of 
women in society is greatly aided, in fact has its origin, 
in the new education that is reaching the women and 
girls as well as the men of all Moslem countries. The 
new and the old jostle one another throughout the 
Islamic world to-day in the spheres of education, social 
transformation, and religious discussions. The fathers 
for the most part cling to the old, while the younger 
generation have a genuine desire to lift the entire social, 
intellectual, and religious order to new levels. 

A new spirit of mutual tolerance is also to be noted. 
There are yet many who believe that Mohammedans 
are universally bloodthirsty and cruel, and that it is 
impossible to have friendly relations with them. Within 


1 Translated for the writer from Igdam, a Constantinople 
paper, by the Rev. Charles T. Riggs. 


10 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


a single decade in Western schools and universities, in 
relations of host and guest, in conversations upon matters 
of morals and religion, in the formation of treaties as 
well as in the contacts of war, there has been created 
a new measure of mutual appreciation. Moslems have 
not hesitated to declare that there is much in Christianity 
that they admire and accept, while Christians have 
learned that the followers of Islam are not wholly bar- 
baric. Familiarity and better acquaintance are producing 
an increasing measure of mutual respect. 

A desire for democracy in place of theocracy is an 
outstanding example of change of ideal which has been 
carried into practical operation in Turkey. Within 
twenty years Turkey represented a government whose 
sovereign regarded himself, and was acclaimed by the 
people, to be the Shadow of God on earth. He claimed 
divine and absolute authority over his own people, and 
through his office as Caliph a large measure of authority 
over all Moslems. The Sultan has been deposed by his 
own subjects, the Caliphate abolished, and a constitu- 
tional democracy established which makes no claim for 
authority above that of the voice of the people. Turkey 
has separated Church and State. 

Persia has adopted a constitution which gets its 
authority from the people. Egypt has set aside eccle- 
siastical law in civil affairs. If the common interpreta- 
tion may be accepted, the fifth stripe in the new flag 
of democratic China gives to the Mohammedans of that 
country a status equivalent to that of a racial group. 
The government of Iraq under King Feisal does not 
claim divine sanction. More important than written 
constitutions and regulations is the constantly rising 
spirit of freedom that is spreading to all Moslem peoples. 
Nationalism is a vital force among Moslems to-day, 


IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 11 


setting aside divine fiat law and substituting laws that 
spring from the will of the people. 

Within a century there has never been a time more 
propitious for a general Moslem uprising than the period 
immediately preceding the Great War. Throughout 
his reign the Caliph, Abdul Hamid II of Turkey, assid- 
uously cultivated Moslem unity. His emissaries pene- 
trated the great Moslem centres preaching the strength 
and solidarity of that religion which was destined 
by Allah to become the one supreme, dominant religion 
of the world, and the Caliph of Islam, the one triumphant 
ruler. Contacts and alliances with European nations 
aided in furthering the design. Mecca and Medina were 
used as centres from which to propagate among all 
Moslem peoples the gospel of unity and ultimate victory. 

The supreme moment came at the outbreak of the 
Great War, when the call went forth from the Caliph to 
all the faithful to rise and strike for Moslem liberty. 
The complete failure of the call for the jzhad is a matter 
of history. There is far less possibility of a coalition of 
the Moslem peoples of the world now than there was 
at that time. Pan-Islamism has become impossible. 
Turkey has lost her peculiar relationship to the Moslem 
world by the abolition of the Caliphate and the expulsion 
of the Caliph. Arabia is hopelessly divided; Egypt 
claims fellowship with no other Moslem country ; Persia 
is under a constitution ; India seeks self-government at 
home, but contemplates no alliance with outside coun- 
tries; the Moros are content under American rule; the 
Moslems in the Dutch East Indies have a rising spirit 
of self-determination ; and Russian Moslems are held 
by the Soviet régime. There appears to be no chance 
whatever for a new spirit of Pan-Islamism to get a foot- 
hold in any Mohammedan country. 


12 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Even though Pan-Islamism is no longer practicable, 
religious leaders in the Turkish Grand National Assembly 
have attempted to secure the passage of laws for the 
protection of the faith and for the punishment of the 
religiously careless. Lord Ronaldshay, in his India, 
a Bird’s-Eye View, says: 

“The views which the Mohammedan deputation [of 
the All-India Moslem League] placed before the Viceroy 
in 1906 were those of a community acutely conscious 
of the fact that it differed fundamentally in its religious, 
social, and ethical ideals from the majority of the in- 
habitants of the land in which it dwelt; and further, 
that, faced with a movement in the direction of the 
democratic constitutionalism of the West, it was in 
danger of losing that which it desired above all things 
to maintain, namely, the individuality which it derived 
from its participation in the world of Islam.” 


This awakening to new perils constitutes a real Islamic 
achievement. It brings a unity in action as well as 
unity in spirit and resistance, binding together races 
and different nationalities. It presents a new and 
formidable barrier to an approach that would further 
disintegrate Islam. In the attempt to save itself from 
the disastrous results of the higher criticism of its sacred 
books and ancient traditions, a new barrier is erected 
against other religions. 

Soon after the Chinese Republic was formed, the more 
enlightened and energetic among the men in the Moslem 
communities in various parts of China began banding 
themselves together into societies in order to stir up 
and promote a new enthusiasm for their faith. In 
Mesopotamia the old and the new jostle one another 
with confusing and startling contrasts. Modern innova- 


VP Are. 249. 


IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 18 


tions like the motor-car, aeroplanes, moving pictures, 
Western intoxicants, a great increase in _ periodical 
publications, are more and more becoming a part of the 
daily life of the Arab and fire him with a new vision of 
another golden age. The religious leaders are aroused by 
this unprecedented awakening of the Arab youth which 
shows a corresponding apathy toward religious ideas 
and practices. The religious forces are arousing them- 
selves to stay the rising tide of unbelief. 

A prominent Indian Moslem, Mr. Jafar Ali Khan, 
recently said : 


“The combined attacks of Christian Europe against 
the integrity of Islam and the covert and overt designs 
of Western Powers against the remnant of Turkey have 
made too deep an impression upon the mind of Moslems 
to be easily effaced.” 


The defeat of the Turk united the loyal followers of 
the Prophet in India against the British and drove them 
to make with the Hindus a common cause against “ their 
common enemy.” With them the question was not so 
much religious as political. They defended their faith 
in order to present a united front in their resistance. 
They have belittled religious differences in order to 
strengthen the bands of resistance. Moslems every- 
where are beginning to see in the flood of new literature 
and the multiplying modern Press a new agency for the 
solidification and unification of their co-religionists 
perhaps as powerful as the Mecca pilgrimage. In Syria_ 
and Egypt, as well as in other Moslem countries, there 
is a general effort to produce a new religious literature 
that will reconcile modern science and ancient Islam. 
To this one phase of modern thought the intelligent 
world of Islam is devoting its best energies. The Wah- 


14 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


habi movement in Arabia and the Ahmadiya movement 
in India are but results of this attempt to meet new 
conditions. 

A reinterpretation of Islam in terms of modern 
science has become necessary if the new generation of 
enlightened men and women are to be held true to the 
faith. None see this more clearly than do the intelligent 
Moslem leaders who view with uneasiness the spread of 
Western learning in all Moslem countries and among 
both sexes, attended by a loss of religious zeal. A 
writer in China says: 


“The impact of modern thought is producing results 
which tend to cause a breaking away from orthodox 
Chinese Mohammedanism. This is due in part at least 
to a feeling that Islam is unable to meet the demands 
of modern hfe. Attempts are being made to meet 
these demands.”’ 


Stewart Crawford of Beirit writes: 


“The methods of Western higher criticism are being 
adopted by some of the younger scholars in Islam, who 
are attempting a new exposition of the literature and 
the tendencies of their religion. The orthodox leaders 
are disturbed by this new freedom in the use of the 
sacred book. But they are unable to check the tendency 
of modern education to create new forms of religious 
activity and of personal piety in the Moslem world.” 


S. Khuda Bukhsh says : 


“Mohammedans are free to adopt whatever is good 
in any civilization. All religions are alike in their 
governing principles. There is nothing in the teachings 
of Mohammed which conflicts with or militates against 
modern civilization. Modern Islam, with its hierarchy 
of priesthood, gross fanaticism, appalling ignorance, 
and superstitious practices, is a discredit to the Islam 
of the Prophet.” 


IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 15 


Therefore he calls for reforms, intellectual, social, and 
religious, and refers to the present as “‘ the dawning era.’ 

Modernism in Islam is an attempt to bring the thought 
and the life of Moslem peoples into harmony with the 
present age and to reconcile Oriental learning and tradition 
with the new literature, new ideas, and modern science. 
The modernist preaches a gospel of free inquiry, of a 
tolerant spirit, and of a higher morality. The reformers in 
Egypt, in public addresses and in writings of all kinds, 
are advocating under the watchword “ Back to the 
Koran,” or “‘ Back to Mohammed,’’ a break with the 
great body of tradition. Some of these devotees of 
modern interpretation are inclined to idealize Mohammed. 
They all, however, appear to agree in the purpose to 
break with antiquated customs and laws and to bring 
Islam into harmony with Western thought. One of 
the modern methods of the reformers is to introduce 
textual criticism. This method is demonstrated in the 
publication of the Woking Koran, with parallel Arabic 
and English texts and in a binding like that of an Oxford 
Bible. 

The contention for liberty of thought, of interpretation, 
and of action, with the spirit of independence increasing 
as modern education and the spread of modern literature 
become more general, opens a fresh door of approach 
to the Moslem world and provides a common ground 
for a new Christian approach. Wherever the idea 
prevails that it is not a sin to discuss philosophy and 
religion, a formidable barrier is removed. Wherever the 
right to doubt the authority of ancient traditions is 
conceded, discussion and inquiry will inevitably follow. 

Dr. Zwemer tells us that ‘‘ in the city of Meshed, once 
as exclusive as Mecca itself and still the glory of the Shia 
world, there is complete liberty. Moslem newspapers 


16 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


criticize the Moslem ecclesiastics.’”’ Dr. Robert E. Speer 
reports that a Moslem editor told him that there was 
no hope for Persia until the power of Islam is shattered. 
There seems to be a widely expressed opinion in Persia 
that the spirit of constitutional government and that 
of Islam are forever incompatible. This same idea 
prevails in Turkey; the conservatives declare that 
constitutional government has destroyed the power of 
Islam, the liberals that it has given liberty to Moslems 
to think and act according to the dictates of their con- 
sciences. The Press in Turkey is free to discuss religion 
and life as it has never been before. In the treaty be- 
tween Great Britain and the King of Iraq, signed in 
1922, there are articles giving religious liberty, freedom 
of conscience, and the free exercise of all forms of public 
worship. Dr. Zwemer reports that extensive corre- 
spondence with missionaries in many Moslem mission 
fields brings out the general expression of a hope that 
they are facing the dawn of a new day of liberty. 

In Malaysia the hitherto unruffled waters are being 
stirred and the symptoms of awakening life appear. 
Western education, eagerness for scientific enlightenment, 
thirst for modern intellectual equipment, are the tokens 
of the new day. The Ahmadiya movement has absorbed 
some of the principles of Christianity, especially upon the 
side of ethics. It is a sign of progress in the direction of 
intellectual emancipation. An educated Turk recently 
said to a missionary : 


“ Of all the forms of liberty, that of the liberty of 
conscience is the most essential and the most sacred. 
A man who is not free to choose and to declare his belief 
loses hold of his own soul. The purposes of education 
and instruction ought to be to prepare the individual 
to be self-reliant and not to depend upon society. It 


IMPACT OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION 17 


ought to develop and strengthen character more than 
intelligence.”’ } 


The Rev. J. Tackle, of India, writes : 


“ The spiritual revolt against a cold formalism, ration- 
alism, and traditionalism, in the Islam that preaches 
a lonely, inaccessible, unfeeling deity, is spreading 
everywhere.” 


Dr. Speer reports that there is in Persia a manifest 
dissatisfaction with Islam among the thinking people. 
There is talk among the intelligent part of starting a 
Protestant movement in Islam. The desire for social 
reforms, now so general throughout the world of Islam, 
presents a common ground for arousing a new interest 
in the larger spiritual needs of society and the race. 

Gottfried Simon writes : 


“T have noticed discontent with the teachings of 
Islam among those Moslems who have come into contact 
with Christianity, and also among Malay pilgrims, who, 
on returning from Mecca, cast away their turbans and 
give strong utterance to their indignation at the practices 
of Mohammedanism.”’ 


The Sultan of Sulu, the Mohammedan religious leader 
of all the Moros, not only patronizes the schools among 
his people but sent his daughter to the United States 
for further studies after she had completed the course 
taught in local schools. The Moslem Albanians have 
practically broken with Islam by the prohibition of 
polygamy, the exposure of the faces of their women, the 
abolition of ceremonial ablution, prostration, and genu- 
flections in prayer. In Egypt there is a growing feeling 
of national unity between Moslems and Christians which 

1 Reported to the writer by the Rev. Dr, William N. Chambers, 
of Adana. 

3 


18 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


is now assuming more the appearance of permanence 
than heretofore. 

Islam of a generation ago is passing into new forms. 
Religious, social, and intellectual revolutions are in 
progress in the Islamic world. This movement is more 
general and more fundamental than any similar religious 
movement since the Reformation. It seems to be but 
at the beginning. Awakened intellects will not brook 
fanatical dictation. Blind tradition cannot stay the 
rising tide of reason as applied to religion. Moslem States 
are falling into line with the world sentiment in favour 
of intellectual and religious freedom. Propagation of 
Islam by force is no longer advocated. A free Press 
is regarded everywhere the sign and guaranty of personal 
freedom. Modern education is accepted among Moslems 
of every country. In its train follow an awakened Press 
and re-evaluation of Islam as a religion to meet the 
needs of a people and a State. 


THE RENAISSANCE IN THE 
MOSLEM NEAR EAST 


BY 
DR. JULIUS RICHTER, 


Professor of Missions, University of Berlin 


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CHAPTER? UL 


THE RENAISSANCE IN THE MOSLEM NEAR 
EAST 


THE Near East has an area almost as great as the United 
States and about half as many inhabitants. Yet its 
population is much more diverse than even that of 
the United States. Even leaving aside the Oriental 
Churches, there are the Egyptians and the Arabs, the 
different Syrian aboriginal tribes like the Druzes and 
the Nusairis, the Turks and the Kurds, the many Persian 
tribes and the Afghans ; almost all of them with different 
languages, traditions, and outlook. Yet in spite of 
all differences there has seemed to be a curious homo- 
geneity of the higher life. It was the world of Islam 
with Mecca as its heart, Cairo as its head, and Con- 
stantinople as its hands. 

The situation has been changed considerably during 
the last twenty-five years by that world-wide movement 
outside of the old Christian countries which we describe 
as the world renaissance. We remember that wonderful 
century from 1450 to 1550 in the history of Europe. 
For seven centuries Western Europe, apart from the 
greater part of the Balkans and of Russia, had been an 
isolated peninsula shut off from the rest of the world 
by a cordon of Moslem countries, reaching from Spain 
and Morocco in the West across North Africa and Asia 


Minor to the White Sea. And this seclusion had been 
21 


22 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


so absolute that even the name of the prophet Mohammed 
and all but the haziest tradition concerning India and 
China had been lost. 

It is true, Europe had built up in this isolation a 
remarkable civilization, a beautiful architecture with 
wonderful cathedrals, astounding systems of theology 
and philosophy, and a good deal of beautiful poetry. 
But the material which they worked upon was always 
more or less the same. They were like children who, 
with the same small wooden blocks, one day build a 
house, the next day a church, the third day a castle. 
So their systems in one generation were realistic, in the 
second nominalistic, in the third sceptic. But there 
was no wide enlargement of their scope and outlook. 

Then from the midst of the fifteenth century the 
scene changed rapidly. Venetian and Florentine traders 
advanced into the Near East; Christopher Columbus 
discovered America; Vasco da Gama found the sea 
route to India. New worlds and wide realms of know- 
ledge dawned upon that generation. The art of book | 
printing, the compass, gun powder, and numerous other. 
inventions followed. The great civilizations of Greece 
and Rome rose out of their graves with their wonderful 
poets, philosophers, historians, sculptors, and architects. 
An unheard-of mass of new material of knowledge and 
learning really flooded Western Europe like a rising tide. 
The astounding fact was that in connexion with this 
new spiritual flood a great number of first-rate men 
arose, indeed a larger number of brilliant geniuses than 
have lived contemporaneously in Europe in any other 
age : painters like Raffael Sanzio and Leonardo da Vinci, 
sculptors like Michelangelo, poets like Dante, Petrarch, 
and Boccaccio, politicians like Machiavelli, religious 
reformers like Savonarola, learned men like Erasmus 


THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST 28 


and Reuchlin, and many others. It was the famous 
cinquecento, the high-water mark of literary Europe. 

Yet altogether there were interesting and instructive 
differences among the countries in which the humanitarian 
Renaissance was centring. Half of Europe in the same 
century experienced that deep religious revival movement 
of the Protestant Reformation. These nations were 
rejuvenated in the deepest springs of their national life. 
They became the advancing nations of Western and 
Northern Europe, Holland with its wonderful expansion, 
Great Britain with its world-wide colonial empire, Sweden 
almost suddenly emerging out of its northern remoteness 
under Gustavus Adolphus, Germany with its wonderful 
spiritual development of philosophy by Leibnitz, Im- 
manuel Kant, Schelling, and Hegel, of poetry, by Lessing, 
Schiller, and Goethe, of music, by Haydn, Mozart, 
Beethoven, and Richard Wagner, almost all of them 
grown on the ground of the German Reformation. On 
the other hand, those nations which rejected and crushed 
the Protestant revival movement, like Italy, Spain, and 
Portugal, were spiritually and morally and soon, also, 
politically crippled. The wonderful flower of their 
springtime did not yield fruit because it lacked the 
spiritual vitality of the Protestant Reformation. 

The application of this marked historical parallelism 
is interesting with regard to every Asiatic country. It 
is particularly striking in the Moslem Near East. It is’ 
a well-known fact that those countries have cultivated , 
a reactionary conservatism and an intolerant fanaticism. 
Al Azhar University at Cairo and other similar centres 
of Arabic learning have maintained a medieval scholas- 
ticism of an extreme character. And the whole life of 
the Moslem population has been regulated by the 
supposedly divine law of the Sharia and by an enormous 


24 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


mass of senseless superstition. And as in a stuffy house 
with closed windows and barred doors, the political 
and religious leaders were quite reluctant to let in the 
fresh breeze of the modern life. One needs only to 
remember the reign of Abdul Hamid in Turkey, hardly 
two decades ago. 

Now the situation has totally changed since the be- 
ginning of this century. Every country has opened its 
doors, however reluctantly, to the modern world life of 
Europe and America, and, by reason of the fact that 
the Near East lies just before the doors of Europe, the 
rising tide is the more irresistibly flooding country after 
country and district after district. The more highly 
educated classes who, particularly in Paris, but later in 
London and Berlin too, have come under the influence 
of modern civilization, in their wholesale admiration of 
everything European and modern have fallen into 
agnosticism and scepticism. Many families of the 
middle class are trying to get the best out of the changed 
conditions, and order their members to learn each at 
least one of the world languages, to be prepared for all 
chances. And behind them all there are the blind and 
fanatical leaders of the old Moslem régime, the wlama and 
muftt and kadi, who feel the sources of their influence and 
of their income slipping away, and the broad masses 
of the ignorant lower classes, farmers and craftsmen, 
who in their conservatism resent all innovations and 
are the easy prey of the reactionary agitation of their 
religious leaders. 

Again, this transformation of the Moslem Near East 
presents very different aspects in the different countries. 
In some, like Persia, there is a curious divergence between 
an extremely fanatical and imperious priestly class and 
broad masses of modernist people who welcome the 


THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST ~ 25 


foreigner, and even the missionary and his gospel, with 
open arms. In others, like Egypt, which have become 
high-roads of world traffic and of globe-trotters, the 
European and modernist influence is permeating all 
classes and districts. In others, again, like Turkey, a 
despotic dictatorship is attempting brutally to crush 
all non-Turkish influences and concerns as well as the 
old-Turkish reaction, maintaining its reckless autocracy 
in the face of almost equal opposition from modernism 
and from reaction. In a country like Afghanistan the 
modern light has been longest and most definitely shut 
out and a change only now seems slowly to appear. 

Of course all this transformation of the Moslem Near 
East is deeply influencing the Protestant missionary 
movement. It is opening new doors and pointing to new 
opportunities. Yet it seems not to be in the matter 
of accessibility that the central problem of Christian 
missions lies. It is a far larger question looming in the 
background. Will there be, parallel to the humanitarian 
Renaissance, a strong, deep religious revival movement 
which can do for the Islamic countries what the Protestant 
movement did for Western and Northern Europe? 

It is hardly possible that such a religious revolution 
and rejuvenation will come out of Islam itself. Whoever 
has watched its sterility, its petrification and disintegra- 
tion during the last half-millennium, particularly since 
the Turkish sultans became dominant in the Near East, 
will not doubt that its spiritual vitality is spent. What 
there is left of really or of seemingly vital forces is in- 
significant and insufficient for so great a task. It is 
one of the tragic events of modern history that the 
Caliphate has been given up by the Turks of their own 
free will. The Caliph was at no time a spiritual head 
like the Prophet or the Pope. 


26 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Yet if it was one of the main purposes of Mohammed’s 
mission to win the recognition of Allah as the legitimate 
sovereign of the universe and to subject all nations to 
his absolute divine law, the function of the Caliph was 
after all the central religio-political office in the Moslem 
community. Its bearer represented the claim to uni- 
versal rule. The idealism and the fanatical hope of 
one-eighth of the human race has centred for a millen- 
nium round this curious idea, which has now been 
abandoned. The Turks have expelled the last Caliph 
from their country ; he is living as an exile somewhere 
in Europe. The spurious attempts of other Moslem 
rulers to adopt the title and claim of the Caliph have 
been futile. 

It has sometimes been alleged that the Moslem dervish 
orders retained that vitality from which a spiritual 
restoration of Islam might develop. Yet he who has 
studied the Senussi movement in Italian Tripoli or the 
Ikhwan movement in Central Arabia sees almost no 
chance in that direction. 

Yet in the time of the Reformation, too, the inspiration 
of the religious revival in most countries came from out- 
side, from Wittenberg and Geneva. Will it in our age 
come from Christendom? The really central question 
is: Has a missionary Protestantism vital power and 
Spiritual energy enough to flood the spiritual deserts 
of modern Islam with the rising tide of a spiritual revival 
which will lead to a religious reformation and trans- 
formation ? ‘That such an evolution is possible can hardly 
be doubted. Islam and Christianity are near enough 
one to the other to be deeply influenced by each other. 
Half of their spiritual heritage they have in common. 
And the spiritual development of Islam in the first few 
formative centuries from Mohammed to al-Ghazali 


THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST 27 


was largely under the influence of Hellenized Christianity 
or Christian Hellenism. 

Here we are confronted with a crucial question: 
Has modern Christianity a convincing and comprehensive 
gospel which is able not only to command the full and 
unreserved allegiance of the Moslem, but also to yield 
the vitalizing and transforming power of a spiritual 
reformation? Evidently a reduced Christianity of the 
First Article, just claiming Jesus as a saintly prophet of 
the fatherhood of God and of the brotherhood of man, 
has not this power. It can only purge Islam of some 
real or apparent excrescences and effect a deepening 
of some of its issues. It would mean no change of 
religion. It would simply attempt to bring about a 
similar reduction in Islam as it has attempted in Chris- 
tianity. The impotence of an intellectualized and 
impoverished Christian message in its reaction upon 
Islam is its final sentence. An eloquent declaration 
that the unbroken resistance of Islam is no reflection 
upon the vitality of Christian missions scarcely hides 
this awkward fact from the standpoint of the superficial 
onlooker. And all undertakings of Christian philan- 
thropy and of social helpfulness are no real and effective 
substitute for a poor and ineffective message. 

So Moslem missions become the very Hic Rhodus, 
ic salta of modern Protestantism in its missionary 
function. We remember how, in quite similar cir- 
cumstances, St. Paul in his letter to the Galatians 
developed his fundamental conception of Christianity 
against the shallow Jewish monotheism of his day. Is 
not modern Islam, crystallized in a bulky system of 
theology, in many lines somewhat similar to the old 
Judaism of the scribes and of the Talmud? Will it, 
then, not be a wise plan to consider very carefully the 


28 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


apologetics and polemics of St. Paul to see clearly our 
issue and its possibilities ? The apostle is quite definite 
in his assertion that it is not any actions of our own 
that bring about the righteousness of God, but the 
divine love revealed in the reconciliation through Jesus 
Christ. It is on this objective fact of salvation through 
God’s love and mercy that he puts the whole emphasis. 

Yet, to be quite clear about the difficulty and perplexity 
of our task, is it not helpful for us to realize that, after 
all, Christian missions among the Jews failed in the first 
two centuries, and Jewish missions have never recovered 
from that fundamental failure? And evidently our 
chances with regard to the Moslems in our generation 
are not greater, or even so great. Yes, we have the same 
renaissance in contemporary Islam which Judaism ex- 
perienced in the first century in its vital touch with the 
Hellenistic civilizations. And men like the Jewish 
philosopher Philo show how far that renaissance went 
and how deeply it modified the narrow Jewish con- 
ception. Yet, besides Apollos, we know of scarcely one 
Alexandrian Jew for whom this Hellenistic renaissance 
became a bridge into the Christian faith. What con- 
vincing proof have we that the effect will be more lasting 
and more favourable in Islam at present? And our 
missions are burdened with the wrong political traditions 
of the so-called Christian Powers. 

It is true, we ourselves are convinced that the decay 
and downfall of political Islam and of the Ottoman 
Empire was the unavoidable consequence of inner dete- 
rioration ; yet we can understand how the overwhelm- 
ing majority of the Moslems may see in it the treacherous 
machination of a supercilious policy—not the saving 
knife of the amputating physician, but the reckless avarice 
of insatiable Powers preying on the poor ‘ Sick Man of 


THE RENAISSANCE IN NEAR EAST 29 


the Bosphorus.” It is this traditional hatred of the 
European Powers, coupled with a deep-seated suspicion 
of their motives, that renders all missionary approach 
in Islam so difficult. And the widespread lack of 
confidence on the part of the Christians, the fruit of 
more than a thousand years of failures and defeats 
in their relations with Moslems, enhances this difficulty 
in our own camp. 

Has the Protestantism of our time vitality and spiritual 
energy enough to start a thoroughgoing religious revival, 
a reformation which in this case really would mean a 
transformation in the Islamic countries of the Near East ? 
Only then would the renaissance mean the same, and 
bring the same beneficent results, as in the cynquecento 
of Europe. 


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Wit CATT PE AN Hy ts Lik DALY, 
TO-DAY, AND TO-MORROW 


BY 
De SAuMARGOLIOUE HD Bitte: vl BoA: 
Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford University 


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CHAPTER . IIT 


THE CALIPHATE, YESTERDAY, TO-DAY, AND 
TO-MORROW 


AT the time when the Caliphate agitation was at its 
height one of its spokesmen in England asserted that, 
unless there were a Caliph who was an independent 
sovereign, the daily prayers of all Sunni Moslems would 
be invalid. This person was a Shii lawyer, and therefore 
of doubtful authority on this matter; and indeed the 
Sunni Lawbooks, which enumerate the conditions whereby 
prayer is rendered valid, do not seem to know of this 
condition. At the time when these lines are being 
written there is no longer a Caliph who is an independent 
sovereign ; for, though the abolition of the Turkish 
Caliphate in March 1924 was immediately followed 
by the assumption of the office by the King of the Hejaz, 
who was then independent, this Caliph has since been 
driven from his realm, and, having abdicated his kingship, 
though not his Caliphate, can no longer give validity to 
Sunni orisons, if the condition mentioned be really re- 
quired. The North African Caliph lost his independence 
in r9g1r; and it would appear that no other potentate 
of consequence holds the office. The conference sum- 
moned to meet in Cairo in March 1925 has been postponed 
for a year; should it, on convening, succeed in making 
an appointment, and should that appointment obtain 
recognition among Sunni communities, the fact will 
4, 33 


34 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


be that for many months the Islamic world will have 
remained without an independent Caliph. This has not 
happened since the death of the Prophet; many a 
dynasty which claimed the Caliphate has fallen; but 
hitherto there has always been another ready to take 
over the torch. 

The question of the Caliphate is rendered obscure by 
certain assumptions, which, unless they are scrutinized, 
are apt to mislead. The word khalifa means “ sub- 
stitution,’ or ‘‘substitute.”” In pre-Islamic Arabic it 
is used for “‘ viceroy ’’ ; when the Prophet left his capital 
for raids, pilgrimage, or for some other purpose, he 
would appoint a “substitute ’”’ to discharge his duties 
during his absence. When he had departed on his 
last journey, a substitute was required. Such a sub- 
stitute should, of course, have been a prophet ; but his 
followers made no claim to be the recipients of revelations, 
and no credence was given in official circles to those 
persons who took the opportunity to urge their claims 
to prophetic gifts. The substitute could then discharge 
only the sort of duties which were executed by those who 
had acted as the Prophet’s substitutes during his life- 
time. They could administer; but they could not 
legislate. 

A man’s natural substitute is his son; the hereditary 
principle was even more widely recognized in the East 
than in the West. Had Mohammed left a son, his right 
to the succession would probably have been at least for 
the time unquestioned; but his sons died in infancy. 
He had, however, allied various influential persons to 
himself, either by giving them his daughters, or by 
himself marrying theirs; and from the relations thus 
obtained his first five followers were chosen. The first 
two were fathers-in-law ; the second two sons-in-law ; 





THE CALIPHATE 35 


the fifth a brother-in-law. The “substitute ’’ was in 
each of these cases a member of the Prophet’s family ; 
the last of this series founded a dynasty. Although it 
is strictly correct to say that with this dynasty the 
hereditary principle became established in Islam, yet the 
fact should not be ignored that its founder’s predecessors 
were all of them allied by marriage to the Prophet. 

The reign of the first of these was very short; the 
second, third, and fourth met with violent deaths; the 
precedents for getting rid of an obnoxious Caliph by 
violent means were thus established at the commencement 
of Islamic history. The causes of the insurrection wherein 
the third Caliph fell are obscure ; if the clue of cuz bono P 
(who was the gainer ?) be followed, suspicion must rest 
on Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, whose 
adherents, the Shia, to this day look upon his three 
predecessors as impious usurpers. But that murder 
led to a war of succession, since the Prophet’s favourite 
wife, whose father had been the first Caliph, had a grudge 
against Ali, and was determined that he should never sit 
safely on that throne ; she lent her influence to another 
cousin of the Prophet, who presently fell in battle, but 
whose son after some years set himself for a time on 
the Prophet’s throne; while a brother-in-law of the 
Prophet, who was related to the third Caliph, and claimed 
to be his natural avenger, found in the Koran a text 
which justified him in assuming the sovereignty, and, 
being a man of consummate ability, founded, as has been 
seen, an hereditary dynasty. Since the commencement 
of the first War of Succession, just a quarter of a century 
after the Prophet’s death, there has been no unity in 
Islam. 

The word khalifa, then, if taken literally as substitute 
for the Prophet, but limited to administrative functions, 


36 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


implies that the Moslem community remained somewhat 
as he left it: an Arab nation, ruled from Medina. But 
in fact, after his death it spread by rapid conquest over 
large portions of Asia, Africa, and Europe; and the 
difficulty of communication, together with the sentiment 
of nationality, rendered these provinces far harder to 
retain than to conquer. Moreover, it was not forgotten 
that the founder of Islam had organized an army and 
raised himself to a throne in the character of religious 
reformer; this furnished a precedent which able and 
ambitious men could follow. Numerous persons in this 
capacity took the title Substitute for the Prophet ; 
several, finding it easier to advocate the claims of some- 
one else rather than their own, founded kingdoms and 
placed supposed heirs of the Prophet on the throne. 

Now all these Caliphs were legitimate in the opinion 
of their adherents. Sometimes those adherents were 
few in number ; in several cases, as in those of the South 
Arabian and in some of the African dynasties, the terri- 
tory over which they ruled was neither extensive nor 
thickly peopled; but the title which was won by the 
sword was defended by argument. One who is a member 
of the Moslem community may well hold that one dynasty 
was legitimate and another usurping ; but those who are 
outside the community have no criterion whereby they 
can thus distinguish them. In modern Europe, owing 
to the popularity of The Arabian Nights, the word 
Caliphate naturally suggests Baghdad ; but the Abbasid 
dynasty, with that city as capital for nearly the whole 
of its duration, was at no time in control of the whole 
Moslem community ; the family which they had displaced 
founded a dynasty in Spain and North Africa, and 
presently felt strong enough to resume the title of Caliph, 
and ere long’ yet another Caliphate was established in 


OE eee.LTLTLTLhT — 


THE CALIPHATE 37 


Egypt. It is an accident that the fame of these Cali- 
phates has found little echo in modern Europe. The 
rulers whom they produced were, in the opinion of large 
masses of men, “ substitutes ’’ for the Prophet. | 

When an Arab made himself master of an Arabic- 
speaking population, he usually took the title of Caliph ; 
for to decline it would imply that he considered himself 
dependent on, or at least inferior to, some potentate who 
held it. The simultaneous existence of three Czsars 
in Europe was due to similar considerations. But when 
a foreigner made himself master of an Arabic-speaking 
population, there was an incongruity in his assuming 
the title of Substitute for the Prophet ; hence another 
plan was followed. Some member of the legitimate 
family was left in possession of the title, whereas the 
real power was in the hands of the usurper. The date 
A.H. 324 (A.D. 936) is of capital importance in Islamic 
history, since in that year a Turkish officer, one Ibn 
Raiq, for the first time made such an arrangement with 
the Abbasid Caliph. For more than two centuries this 
system prevailed in Baghdad, and it was afterwards in 
a somewhat excessive form continued in Egypt. 

In Baghdad, where the Abbasid family represented 
the founders of the city, the Caliph was revered by the 
population, and, though the foreign usurpers thought 
little of deposing and blinding a Caliph who gave trouble, 
they found it worth their while ordinarily to keep on 
good terms with the Caliph, and were eager to ally them- 
selves by marriage with the imperial family. The 
Caliphs, therefore, under these usurpers enjoyed con- 
siderable influence, and exercised it in judicial and 
religious affairs; in consequence, they were able ulti- 
mately to shake off the yoke and for a time assume 
independence, The case was different in Cairo, which 


38 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


had been founded by another branch of the Prophet’s 
family, and where, in consequence, there was no tradition 
of loyalty to the Abbasid dynasty. When, therefore, the 
able though unscrupulous Sultan Baibars accepted the 
claim of a supposed representative of the Abbasids, and 
received investiture from him, on condition that all 
the functions of sovereignty were delegated to himself, 
the sacrifice which he made to the sentiment of legitimacy 
was small; for the suzerain whom he appointed was 
entirely dependent on himself, and had no natural 
following in the country. If, as a foreigner, he could 
not be Caliph in an Arabic-speaking country, he by this 
expedient secured himself against dependence on any 
other Caliph. And these Egyptian Abbasids were 
allowed no interference with any branch of public affairs. 

When a foreigner was sovereign of a foreign (non- 
Arab) Moslem population he had not to reckon with 
the sentiment that has been mentioned, and could, if 
he thought fit, assume the title Substitute for the Prophet. 
This happened both in Turkey and in India. Other 
titles were more familiar in these countries, just as in 
England, though the King has the title ‘‘ Defender of 
the Faith,” it is rarely used. Only the Ottoman Sultan 
or the Moghul Emperor was Caliph not because he had 
inherited the office from a relation of the Prophet, but 
because he was a Moslem king. 

The question therefore, Who is the legitimate Caliph 
of the Moslems ? has about the same amount of meaning 
as the question, Who is the legitimate king of the 
Christians ? Neither of these communities constitutes 
a political or even a religious unit; both are divided 
into nations and into sects. The nations will have 
their political and the sects their religious heads. 

Yet there is one feature of the Islamic system which 


THE CALIPHATE 39 


involves unity, and that is the Pilgrimage. Every 
Moslem ought at least once in his life to make a pilgrimage 
to Mecca ; and reverence to the Prophet requires as well 
a visit to Medina, where his grave is. This is not feasible 
unless these Sanctuaries and their approaches are in the 
hands of a Moslem power; it must be the business of 
some such authority to secure to the Moslems the chance 
of discharging this obligation. Hence the power that 
is in possession of the Sanctuaries occupies a peculiar 
position in the Moslem world; and sovereigns who 
were not in possession of these Sanctuaries have hesitated 
to take the title Caliph in consequence. Normally, it 
may be said, they have been in the possession of the 
most powerful Moslem government of the time; and 
so, when the Caliphate of Egypt had come to an end, and 
a century later that of Baghdad also terminated owing 
to the Mongol conquest, the Sherif of Mecca of the time 
applied to the Moslem sovereign whom he supposed to 
be the best qualified from the point of view of power 
to take over the obligation. When the two Caliphates 
of importance were the Ottoman and the Moghul, the 
latter proposed that each of them should have possession 
of a Sanctuary. 

Although, then, the Ottoman Sultan could claim the 
title Caliph on the principle that has been explained, he 
first became de facto Caliph when he entered into possession 
of the Sanctuaries ; and with the loss of them his title 
lapsed, inasmuch as the Moslem community no longer 
depended on him for the possibility of discharging their 
duty of pilgrimage. At the time when the Ottoman 
president abolished the office, which he could do only 
for Turkey, there was good reason for thinking that 
this question of the pilgrimage would soon become a 
practical one; and the danger which this astute man 


40 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


foresaw has materialized. The Sanctuary of Mecca has 
passed out of the possession of the King of the Hejaz 
into that of the Wahhabi ruler, whose attitude towards 
pilgrims cannot be certainly foreseen; correspondents 
of the newspapers assure us that this ruler, so far from 
interfering with the pilgrims, will encourage their arrival, 
if only for financial reasons; but the ruler’s fanatical 
followers may have something to say in this matter, 
and they may well impose such conditions on pilgrims 
as may make them unwilling to visit the Sanctuary so 
long as the Wahhabi régime prevails. Moreover, while 
these lines are being written, Jidda, the port of Mecca, 
is still in the hands of the new King of the Hejaz, and 
serious difficulty would be occasioned to pilgrims by the 
port and the Sanctuary being occupied by mutually 
hostile Powers. Possibly the ex-King of the Hejaz still 
clings to his title Caliph because he hopes he may be 
able to restore the situation. Certainly any real Caliph 
would be compelled to clear it up. For the Sanctuary 
of Islam ought not to bein the hands of a sect which, 
in proportion to the others, is exceedingly small and 
notoriously fanatical in its attitude towards those others. 

When this difficulty is pointed out to Moslems, they 
reply that the duty of pilgrimage is in the Koran made 
conditional on ability; if the pilgrimage became im- 
possible owing to the occupation of the Sanctuary by a 
Power that did not permit it, then the obligation would 
lapse. This view is clearly sound; but therewith the 
sole factor which maintains unity in Islam would also 
disappear, for it was by separating the religious from 
the political capital that the founder of Islam secured 
for his system the ability to outlast the constantly in- 
creasing divisions and the rise and fall of dynasties. 
The fall of a Caliphate could not affect this ; the posses- 





THE CALIPHATE 41 


sion of the religious capital by a fanatical sect would 
seriously impair it. 

There would seem, at the moment, to be two proposals 
before the Moslem peoples: one, that representatives 
should meet in Mecca to determine the future of the 
Sanctuaries ; another, that such should meet in Cairo 
to settle the question of the Caliphate. It is difficult 
to suppose that the former of these congresses could 
do more than register the wishes of the Wahhabi Sultan ; 
he has on his side the logic of the “ stricken field,” which 
few if any Oriental potentates have ever declined to 
emphasize. The persons who attend such a congress 
will certainly be unaccompanied by forces which would 
enable them to resist legislation of which they disapprove, 
and it is unlikely that those whom they represent would 
be in a position to back them up. It is asserted that the 
Wabhabis, on their entry into the Sacred City, proceeded 
to perform a series of acts which would certainly move 
the indignation of the bulk of the Moslem world; the 
“ Station of Abraham ”’ itself with difficulty (according 
to this report) escaped being broken up. The business 
of the foreign representatives will, then, at best be to 
communicate to those who despatch them the conditions 
on which the Wahhabi conqueror intends in future to 
permit the pilgrimage. Those conditions may be 

acceptable to the Moslem community, or they may 
~ be otherwise. 

The Cairene project admits of far greater liberty 
of expression of opinion, for it is improbable that free 
speech will be suppressed. On the other hand, though 
the sheikhs of Al Azhar might well be consulted on 
points of religious law, it is not clear how either they 
or the delegates whom they invite could have any exe- 
cutive power. They themselves, in their manifesto, 


A2 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


asserted that the Ottoman Caliph had forfeited his rights 
owing to his proved inability to defend himself. In 
order to be consistent, they will have to confine their 
choice to a powerful prince. To select the Wahhabi 
Sultan would be equivalent to identifying Islam with 
Wahhabism: but the difficulties of choosing any other 
Moslem potentate would seem to be enormous. If the 
functions of their Caliph were to be purely passive, that 
is, to be mentioned in public prayer—he would certainly 
not be mentioned on the coins of any but his own State, 
—it is improbable that the ruler of one Moslem State 
would allow this to be done in his dominions for the 
ruler of another State; and it is improbable that any 
one of these personages would grasp at such a distinction. 
If, however, the Caliph is to have duties as well as rights, 
the recovery of the Sanctuary from Wahhabi hands 
would be the first which would be incumbent on him. It 
is exceedingly improbable that the sheikhs will find 
any prince who is willing to undertake this. 

Moreover, the appointment of a Caliph by sheikhs 
and delegates is an innovation. Historical appointments 
of Caliphs were appointments of sovereigns, heads of 
governments ; and these could naturally be made only 
by those who were actively engaged in public affairs 
and had personal acquaintance with the possible candi- 
dates. The ship of State could not be left for a moment 
without someone at the helm; and, where there was 
no actual law of succession, the court intrigue was the 
natural and probably the best method of securing a 
helmsman when the emergency arose. There is now 
no State requiring a helmsman ; the Moslem world has 
dispensed with a Caliph for a considerable period, and 
it would be difficult to show that any Moslem had suffered, 
at any rate to any extent which the existence of a Caliph 


THE CALIPHATE 43 


would have prevented. This fact was conceded by the 
Sheikhs when they decided to postpone their congress. 
So far as a Caliph has any administrative duties, each 
Moslem State has its Caliph, or government, already. 
It is not conceivable that the choice made by sheikhs 
and delegates will affect this matter even in the slightest 
degree. 

If, however, the Caliph to be appointed is to be merely 
an ultimate authority on religious questions, his charac- 
ter will be very different from that of former holders 
of the title. If we take Harun al-Rashid as the type of 
a Caliph—and his is the name most familiarly associated 
with that title—it is quite certain that he, at any rate, 
ostensibly subordinated his judgment to those who 
had made a profounder study of the law than himself. 
Having caught his son in the commission of a capital 
offence, he would have executed judgment, but held his 
hand when a jurist explained to him that he could not act 
on his personal knowledge, but only on the attestation 
of others. Certainly, among those who took the title 
of Caliph, there were persons who were themselves 
religious reformers ; the title was taken, in most of these 
cases, after sovereignty had been won, and not in virtue 
of their claim to purify religion. The interpreter of 
the law is rather the Mufti, or the Sheikh al-Islam. 
Qualified jurists usually are tenacious of the right to 
dispute the rulings of the government Mufti, as the 
famous Mufti, Mohammed ‘Abdu of Egypt, experienced. 
Would the jurists resign this right in favour of a Caliph ? 
And would the orthodox schools, which have lasted for 
eleven centuries, agree to amalgamate ? 

Forecasts that are based on general considerations 
are at times rendered false by the sagacity of states- 
men; such persons can find outlets where those who 


44 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


have neither the experience nor the astuteness see only 
a blank wall. Hitherto, however, those students of 
Islamic history who declared the Caliphate agitation to 
be factitious and frivolous have been shown by the 
event to be right. It remains to be seen whether the 
future has any surprise for them. 


THE INSTITUTION OF THE CALIPHATE 
AND THE SPIRIT OF THE AGE 


ANONYMOUS 





CHAP CER ULV: 


THE INSTITUTION OF THE CALIPHATE AND 
THE: SPIRIT, OF THE’ AGE 


THE word Caliph, in Arabic khaltfa, means successor, 
and it describes the person holding this office as the 
Successor of the Prophet Mohammed. As_ prophet, 
Mohammed had no successor: his prophetic office came 
to an end with his death. The Caliph succeeds only to 
the rule and authority wielded by the Prophet. 

The Moslem Caliphate has existed in different centres 
successively for 1,292 years, and there have been times 
when several rulers in different countries have claimed 
the Caliphate, as, forexample, in Baghdad, in Spain, and 
in Egypt. 

The Caliphate has been held by different successive 
dynasties (in Mecca, 632-660; in Damascus, 660-750 ; 
in Baghdad, 750-1258; in Egypt, 1258-1517 ; in Con- 
stantinople, the Ottoman Caliphate, 1517-1924). There 
was also a Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and North Africa, 
go8-II7I. 

The Republic of Turkey put an end to the reign of 
the Ottoman Sultans by a resolution adopted by the 
Grand National Assembly, November 1, 1922, and it 
discarded the name Ottoman in favour of the name 
Turkish. That resolution declared that “‘ by the law 
of fundamental organization, the Turkish Nation having 


transferred its sovereign power to the moral personality 
47 


48 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


of the Grand National Assembly, the Sultanate ended 
for all time on March 16, 1920,” when the Republic was 
declared. A few days after the adoption of this resolution, 
on November 18, 1922, Abdul Mejid Effendi, the heir- 
presumptive, was chosen Caliph by the Grand National 
Assembly without any definition of his powers. Thus 
the Turkish Republic put an end to the Ottoman Sultanate, 
but continued the Caliphate as a purely spiritual office 
devoid of temporal power. 

Historically, however, the Caliph has been a political 
functionary rather than a religious one. He has pos- 
sessed no spiritual functions which are not possessed 
by all Moslems ; so it was only a question of time how 
soon the Turks would perceive that there was no reason 
for the continued existence of the Caliphate. 

The next step was taken by the Grand National 
Assembly in the beginning of March 1924, when it 
abolished the Caliphate also and expelled Abdul Mejid 
and all the members of the royal family from Turkey. 

Abdul Mejid was the thirty-eighth Ottoman Caliph 
and the ninety-fourth in the line of succession from the 
death of Mohammed in 632 to 1924, not counting rival 
claimants to the office, of whom there have been as many 
as eight at one time (in the eleventh century). 

The Ottoman Dynasty held the Caliphate from about 
1517 down to the year 1924. The beginning of the 
Ottoman Caliphate is generally attributed to Sultan 
Salim, who is said to have taken it over from the Abbasid 
Caliph in Egypt in 1517; but there is much vagueness 
in the accounts of this event, and the Ottoman Sultans 
often regarded themselves as appointed by God to the 
Caliphate in accordance with two texts of the Koran, 
38 : 25, “‘ and we have made thee a caliph on the earth,” 
and 6: 165, ‘‘ He hath made you caliphs on the earth.” 








INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE A9 


The question now arises whether it is the Caliphate, 
considered as an office pertaining to the whole world of 
Islam, which has come to an end, or only the Turkish 
Caliphate, which will be succeeded by that of some other 
dynasty, as has been the case so often in the history of 
Islam. In order to form any opinion on this question 
we must understand the causes which led the Turks to 
repudiate the Caliphate, and the effects which this re- 
pudiation has produced among Moslems. 

In the minds of the Turks religion and nationalism 
have been held as synonymous terms—an apostate from 
Islam was looked upon as a traitor to his nation. At 
the present time there is a strong tendency towards 
a purely secular nationalism divorced from religion. 
The Grand National Assembly is animated by a strong 
desire that Turkey should become a modern, progressive, 
homogeneous Moslem State. The abolition of the 
Caliphate is to be regarded as the result of this desire 
pushing them to a series of steps rather than as a policy 
deliberately conceived beforehand and consistently carried 
out. Every step taken led the way to the succeeding 
steps. 

When the Assembly adopted a republican form of 
government they did not at once realize that this would 
lead them to abolish the Sultanate and the Caliphate, 
but they were carried along on the strong tide of the 
new nationalism. The creation of the Grand National 
Assembly invested with both legislative and executive 
functions robbed the Sultanate of its reason to exist, and 
the decree of the Assembly only registered what was 
already an accomplished fact. The Sultanate died when 
the Republic was born. 

The Caliph then remained, it was said, as a purely 
spiritual leader—the religious head. The Caliph, how- 

5 


50 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


ever, has never been a spiritual leader. He is no pope, 
and there is no place for a pope in Islam. It is difficult 
for Westerners to realize what a startling innovation 
the deposition of the Caliph was in Turkey. The Caliphs 
have not been theologians, nor have they proclaimed 
new doctrines or interpretations of the Sacred Law: 
the Caliphs themselves have been subject to the Sacred 
Law, as all other Moslems are, and the interpretation of 
that law pertained to the Ulama, or Scribes—the body 
of men learned in the law. When the temporal power 
was taken away from the Caliphs they were left without 
any adequate content for their office—an office without 
functions, for the Caliph is really a temporal sovereign 
and not a spiritual head. 

Mawardi (quoted by Sir Thomas Arnold, The Cah- 
phate, p. 72), defines the functions of the Caliph as 
follows: “‘the defence and maintenance of religion, 
the decision of legal disputes, the protection of the 
territory of Islam, the punishment of wrongdoers, the 
provision of troops for guarding the frontiers, the waging 
of war, jihad [or holy war], against those who refuse 
to accept Islam or to submit to Muslim rule, the collection 
and organization of taxes, the payment of salaries and 
the administration of public funds, the appointment of 
competent officials, and, lastly, personal attention to the 
details of government’’—in a word, “the defence of 
religion and the administration of the State.”’ Mawardi 
was writing in the eleventh century, but his distinguished 
contemporary, al-Beruni, recognized ‘‘ that what was left 
in the hands of the Abbasid Caliph at that time was only © 
a matter that concerned religion and dogmatic belief, 
since he was not capable of exercising any authority in 
the affairs of the world whatsoever.” 

That was the period of the degradation of the Caliphate, 


INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 51 


and in 1924 the Caliph had again fallen into like degrada- 
tion. The Caliph had no power, either political or 
spiritual; he had become a mere figurehead, whose 
chief functions were to receive visits and to attend the 
weekly ceremony of the Salamlik and of public prayer. 
It was difficult to reconcile this empty existence with 
the dignity and authority which history and tradition 
have accorded to the Caliphs of Islam in the past. Abdul 
Mejid could not be satisfied with such a life, and many 
devout Moslems felt that such a position was not worthy 
of the religious head of the Islamic world. Notably 
the Agha Khan and Ameer Ali appealed to the Turkish 
Government to define clearly the powers and the authority 
of the Caliph and to give him a position commensurate 
with the traditions of his high office and of its relations 
with the world of Islam. Unfortunately, the Grand 
National Assembly saw in their intervention only collusion 
between these men abroad and certain parties in Con- 
stantinople, and they looked upon it as a covert attack 
upon the Republic. It seemed to them that the Caliphate 
could be exalted only at the expense of the Republic. 
The bad feeling between Angora and Constantinople 
aggravated the difficulty. Turkey has virtually two 
capitals, the old one, Constantinople, enjoying a unique 
situation of unparallelled beauty on the European and 
Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus, a city abounding in 
historic associations, a centre of sea-borne commerce, 
and exposed to European influences; and the new 
capital, Angora, a small provincial town in Asia Minor, 
removed from foreign influences, in the midst of a peasant 
population, the terminus of a branch line of the Baghdad 
Railway, and having no adequate buildings in which to 
house the Government and its officials. The Caliph 
resided in the old capital, and the seat of government 


52 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


was in the new. If the Caliph had been transferred to 
Angora, where he would have been under the eye of the 
Government, he might have enjoyed a longer reign. 
Angora was exceedingly suspicious of Constantinople, 
looking upon it as a centre of foreign intrigues and only 
half-loyal to the Republic. Constantinople thought 
that a provincial town like Angora could not understand 
the problems of the metropolis or legislate wisely for 
its foreign trade. 

The Angora men regarded the Caliph as the centre 
of intrigues hostile to the Republic and considered that 
the religious head of Islam was likely to be dangerous 
to the new State whenever it was weak. Abdul Mejid 
is an upright man, sincerely desirous of promoting the 
best interests of his people ; but the Assembly at Angora, 
looking at him from a distance, invested him with other 
traits of character, and became wholly estranged from 
the Caliphate which had lost its traditional hold upon 
them under the influences of the new nationalism. 

The principal reasons which impelled them to abolish 
the Caliphate were: 

1. Economy. They desired to get rid of the expense 
of supporting the former imperial family. 

2. Fear. They feared that the members of this 
family would always be wedded to the old régime and 
would seek to restore it. They pointed to the plots. 
and crimes which stain the history of the Ottoman 
Sultans, and they thought that whenever the Republic 
might be exposed to danger from without the members 
of the old dynasty would become an internal danger. 

3. Modernism. They wanted to become a modern 
State which could take its place among the other nations 
on a basis of equality with them. To this end they 
believed that it was necessary to separate Church and 


INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 53 


State. They proposed to do away with the Sharia 
(Sacred Law) and with the medressés (religious schools), 
to secularize education, and to remove the Department 
of Worship from the Cabinet. 

These changes, so radical and so sweeping, startled the 
whole world; Turkey, and with her Islam, seemed to 
be breaking with the past and starting on new careers. 

At first it caused a great deal of excitement in the 
Moslem world, which was taken quite by surprise at 
this sudden measure. Protests were made in different 
countries, notably in Syria and Palestine and in India, 
where the Moslems looked upon the abolition of the 
Caliphate as an attack upon the religion of Islam made 
by an ungodly government. In Egypt the first excite- 
ment seems to be giving place to acquiescence in the 
action of the Turkish Republic on the ground that it 
is a matter which concerns Turkey alone. This seems 
to carry with it the implication that the Caliphate of 
the Ottoman Sultans was merely a Turkish Caliphate, 
and not one legitimate and valid for all the world of 
Islam; but it has been generally held that the Caliph, 
as successor to the Prophet, was in some sense the religious 
head of the whole Moslem world. It remains to be seen 
whether that world will allow the Caliphate to lapse 
or whether it will revive the office in some new form. 
A meeting of the Ulama held in Cairo called for a Moslem 
congress to be held in 1925 to consider the question 
of the Caliphate; but the convening of that congress has 
been postponed for a year. 

In Turkey itself the abolition of the Caliphate caused 
astonishment and bewilderment to many devout Moslems 
and to the common people generally. The question was 
often asked, In whose name is the prayer to be offered 
in the mosques on Fridays in connexion with the sermon 


54 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


(khutba) ? According to the best authorities the name 
of the reigning Caliph ought to be mentioned in the 
prayer. The National Assembly issued instructions 
that prayer should be offered for the prosperity and 
welfare of the Republic of Turkey. The religious feelings 
of the people suffered considerable shock. In the past 
the Turks have been held together by devotion to their 
ruler and to their religion ; now it seemed to them that 
the very foundations had been cut away from under 
them. They missed the religious sanctions of their 
long-established traditions. The Angora men _ con- 
sidered that the functions of the Caliph are now vested 
in the Grand National Assembly, which will discharge 
them through a Council of Public Worship ; apparently 
there is a loss of religious authority in the process of 
change, which it will be difficult to restore. 

The consternation caused to pious Moslems by the 
abolition of the Caliphate may be compared to that felt 
by their predecessors in Baghdad when Hulagu put 
the Caliph to death, as described by Sir Thomas Arnold 
in The Caliphate, pp. 81, 821: 


“It is difficult to estimate the bewilderment that 
Muslims felt when there was no longer a Caliph on whom 
the blessing of God could be invoked in the khutbah ; 
such an event was without precedent throughout the 
previous history of Islam. Their suffering finds ex- 
pression in the prayer offered in the great mosque of 
Baghdad on the Friday following the death of the Caliph : 
‘ Praise be to God, who has caused exalted personages to 
perish, and has given over to destruction the inhabitants 
of this city. ... O God, help us in our misery, the like 
of which Islam and its children have never witnessed ; 
we are God’s, and unto God do we return.’ ”’ 


1 Quoted from C, d’Ohsson, Histoive des Mongols, t. ili, pp. 
251-4. 


INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 55 


The Caliphate had lost much of its historic sanctity 
in 1924; still, its abolition gave a severe shock to devout 
Moslems, and many are still unreconciled to it. 

Whatever view may be taken as to the importance of 
the Caliphate, it can hardly be denied that it did con- 
stitute a bond of moral unity among the Moslem peoples 
of the world, and its abolition tends to weaken that 
unity. 

The Law of Sunnite Islam requires that there be a 
Caliph. The author of the Sharhwl Muwakif says: 
“ The appointment of an Imam [Caliph] is incumbent 
upon the united body of Muslims according to the orthodox 
law of the Sunnis.’’ The religious feelings and the 
traditions of Moslems call for the appointment of a new 
Caliph for all Moslems. 

A commission from India is said to be urging that 
Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the President of the Turkish 
Republic, assume the office of Caliph. The argument 
for this course is that the strongest Moslem ruler 
should be the Caliph. Except in Turkey, Persia, Af- 
ghanistan, Turkistan, and Arabia, the Moslems of 
the present age live under the rule of non-Moslem 
sovereigns. For them the possession of civil power is 
not possible. 

On the other hand, not all Moslems have accepted the 
Ottoman rulers as Caliphs. The Shias do not accept 
the Caliphate of the Ottoman Sultans, or that of any 
living ruler. 


“The Shiahs hold the twelfth and last historic Imam, 
the Mahdi Mahomed, born in the middle of the third 
century of the Moslem era, to be the Lord of the Age 
and the Salvation of God; that though invisible, he 
still lives and looks after the affairs of mankind, both 
spiritual and temporal. They allow the title of Caliph 


56 ‘THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


to no one save the Lord of the Age, and deny that he 
has appointed any deputy.” ! 


So the Shias, numbering perhaps 15,000,000, must 
be taken out of a universal Moslem Caliphate. Some 
Moslems hold that the Caliphate really lasted only 
thirty years. One Tradition represents the Prophet 
as saying : 

“ The Caliphate after me will endure for thirty years ; 
then will come the rule of a king.” ? 


The Sherif of Morocco is reverenced by his subjects 
as Caliph, and there are claimants of this office in other 
countries also. Hence, any Caliph who may be appointed 
will not be universally recognized by all Moslems. 

No Caliph who may be appointed can fulfil the historic 
functions of the Caliphate, such as the guardianship of 
the two sacred shrines of Mecca and Medina and the 
civil power over all Moslems. 

The sovereignty of the Caliph is incompatible with 
constitutional government. Sell, in The Faith of Islam, 
published in Madras in 1880, wrote words which sound 
like prophecy at the present day. He says (p. 87): 


“Tt is a fatal mistake in European politics and an 
evil for Turkey to recognize the Sultan as the legal 
Khalifa of Islam, for, if he be such, Turkey can never 
take any steps forward to newness of political life.”’ 


In view of this comment, it is highly significant that, 
when Turkey awakened and desired to take a step towards 
newness of political life, she should have felt constrained 
to throw off both the Sultanate and the Caliphate. 

1 The Times, London, September 24, 1924, “‘ Report of the 


Conference on Living Religions within the British Empire,”’ 
2 Sir Thomas Arnold, The Caliphate, p. 107. 


INSTITUTION OF CALIPHATE 57 


In a revised and enlarged third edition, published in 
1907, Sell prefaces this comment by quoting from 
Cunningham’s Western Civilization (vol. 2, p. 118): 


““ The rule of the Caliphs was, in its ultimate basis, a 
theocracy ; it would submit to no limitations, and the 
objects which it set before itself, in the conquest of the 
world to the Faith and the attainment of Paradise by 
fighting for it, gave no scope for a doctrine of the re- 
sponsibility of civil rulers and of duty to the governed.’ 

“The Council of the Ulama in July, 1879, anent 
Khairu’d-din’s proposed reform, which would have 
placed the Sultan in the position of a constitutional 
sovereign . . . declared [this] to be directly contrary 
to the law. ‘ The law of the Sheri does not authorize 
the Khalifa to place beside him a power superior to his 
own. The Khalifa ought to reign alone and govern 
as master. The Vakils [Ministers] should never possess 
any authority beyond that of representatives, always 
dependent and submissive.’ ”’ 


Sell adds : 
“This is one of the most important decisions of the 
jurists of Islam.... It proves as clearly as possible that, 


so long as the Sultan rules as Khalifa, he must oppose 
any attempt to set up a constitutional government. 
There is absolutely no hope of real reform.” 


This was written over forty years ago, and it states 
clearly the fact that this institution of Islam—the 
Caliphate—is incompatible with the spirit of this age 
and with reform. No ruler can accept this office without 
either breaking away from the historic conception of 
the Caliphate or parting with all ideas of progress and 
reform. 

Hence we come to the conclusion that the Caliphate 
has lost its place in Islam because it is incompatible 


58 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


with constitutional government and reform. At the 
same time, it is also true that, in losing the Caliphate, 
Islam has lost a certain sense of solidarity and moral 
unity, and this loss will make itself felt increasingly. 
The Caliphate lost its reason for existence, and yet its 
abolition takes from Islam a certain element of strength. 


FERMENTS IN THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 


BY 
BASIL MATHEWS, M.A., 


Literature Secretary, World’s Alliance of Young Men’s 
Christian Associations 


hes 


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“Fy 
GALE: OVATE AIA: Tied ad 


Z wi auite EAs Vinee ahi! TRY hiya suet Ny , 
SRY arp Oee RS Wiad AEM 4 





7 CHAPTER V 
FERMENTS IN THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 


WHILE watching a torrent of Egyptian youth from Al 
Azhar University racing and roaring along the streets 
of Cairo to demonstrate before Zaghloul Pasha, I won- 
dered whether any generation has ever been swept from 
ancient footholds by such a tidal wave as is surging 
around and over the youth of the Moslem world to-day. 

That almost untranslatable French phrase, le choc 
des idées (carrying the sense not only of shock but also 
of intellectual combat and of a cavalry-charge of fresh 
thought), conveys something of the force of the sweeping 
movement that is at this hour transforming the meaning 
of life among the new generation of all Islamic peoples. 
The fact that the waves break upon youth born and bred 
within the most rigid, resistant, and self-complete of 
the world’s religious and social systems makes the tur- 
moil all the more turbulent and dramatic. 

If we examine somewhat closely the causes of the 
incident of that shouting procession of students (trivial 
as it was in itself), we shall be carried to the heart of 
many of the ideas that are changing life so radically 
for youth. We shall also see some of the concentric 
forces that are irresistibly driving those ideas home. 
Any thoroughgoing examination of those ideas and 


forces must seem inchoate and confused. For the 
61 


62 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


whole movement of thought and feeling is as confused 
as it is profound. 

The fury that carried those undergraduates of Al 
Azhar University along the streets was wrath against a 
Labour Prime Minister in England who had just declared 
his allegiance to the understanding between Britain 
and Egypt by which the former retained its control of 
the Sudan. The precise rights and wrongs of that 
political question do not touch us here. The fermenting 
idea, however, which surely is our concern, was a vehe- 
ment nationalism issuing in an uncompromising and 
unqualified clamour for self-determination. The facts 
that this clamour by Egyptians for self-determination 
for the Sudanese (who had not asked for it) overleaped 
the banks of consistent nationalism and that the Egyp- 
tian Prime Minister sent the demonstrating students 
back to their studies of the Koran rather chastened, 
only serve to illustrate the occasionally dizzy and un- 
certain results of these whirling movements. 

The Prime Minister, Zaghloul Pasha, was himself 
perhaps the most astounding product of le choc des idées 
that could be discovered in the post-war world. Within 
some hours of this student demonstration the writer had 
opportunity of unhurried talk with him. It took one’s 
breath away to remember, first, that this man was the 
first Egyptian to rule in Egypt (the oldest home of 
civilization in the world) since the Persians overthrew 
the Pharaohs over forty centuries ago; that he was the 
first ruler whom the Egyptians ever elected by their 
own will to supreme power; and that he who now > 
exercised this supreme rule had only a few months earlier 
been a rebel in exile from his own land. The concentra- 
tion of nationalistic will and passion in Egypt that 
brought Zaghloul Pasha to power had in Egypt actually 


THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 63 


brought Moslem mulvis into Christian pulpits and Coptic 
priests into Moslem mosques, bridging the yawning 
religious chasm between Christianity and Islam in a 
way that would have been incredible a decade earlier. 
In a word, for the first time perhaps in Islamic history 
political union with infidels was stronger than Islamic 
exclusiveness. 

Nationalism, then, with its practical policy of self- 
determination, is the outstanding primary idea fermenting 
in the mind of Moslem youth to-day. The idea of self- 
determination was the central architectonic principle 
of President Wilson’s Fourteen Points and of the Allied 
war aims, and as such, it was shouted (to use Walt 
Whitman’s phrase) “ across the roof-tops of the world,”’ 
in all the languages of Asia as well asof Europe. This 
fact is often forgotten when we hear the same principles 
come back under such war-cries as Swaraj (i.e. “India 
for the Indians’’) or “‘ Egypt for the Egyptians.”’ Cer- 
tainly the West ought not to be surprised that nationalism 
everywhere in the Moslem world is the fiercest of the 
fermenting forces among youth. Whether you walk 
in Delhi or Angora, talk with young Baghdadi merchants, 
Arab camelmen, or Algerian senior schoolboys, listen to 
the young bloods of an Afghan fighting force or the 
newer journalists and poets of the Persian plateau, the 
voice and accent are different, but the idea is in essence 
one. 

In the mind of Moslem youth the idea of the nation 
has irreparably torn into fragments the enormous, heavy 
tapestry of Pan-Islamism. Nothing parallel to this 
has happened in the mind of any generation of youth 
since the Reformation shattered the unity of the Holy 
Roman Empire. In the case of Islam, as in that of the 
Holy Roman Empire, a unity, semi-religious and semi- 


64 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


political in nature, has been shattered by a vivid series 
of smaller, more intense national unities. These national 
unities are, as indeed they were in the case of the Holy 
Roman Empire, wholly political in character, yet they 
call out a passionate devotion essentially religious. 

The shock that the action of young Turkish nationalists 
has inflicted on the older Moslem consciousness came 
home to the writer in an unforgettable scene in the home 
of the Sheikh of Nain. The writer had ridden across the 
Plain of Esdraelon from Nazareth on a quiet pilgrimage, 
following from place to place in the footsteps of Jesus 
Christ and attempting, in visualizing His life in those 
places, to find rest of spirit and mind from the almost 
torturing pressure of the terrific problems of the post-war 
world. There, on the slopes of Mount Moreh, lay the 
primitive homes of the people of Nain. At the top of 
the village was the sheikh’s home. 

Calling upon him, we found that the Sheikh of Endor 
had cantered across the corner of the plain to visit his 
friend. Surely, one felt, no problem of the great world 
of unrest could send even an eddy into this backwater 
of remote simplicity. But within a few minutes the 
two sheikhs, with an agitation and vehemence unusual 
in Arabs holding authority, were urging me to bring it 
about that the Prime Minister of Britain send to Mustafa 
Kemal at once an appeal and a reprimand, calling on 
him to cancel his horrible acts of destroying the Caliphate 
in Turkey and of exiling the ex-Caliph. “It is wicked, 
wicked,” they reiterated. “‘ He is a bad, bad man.” 
If we can imagine a Mussolini in Italy abolishing the 
Papacy and exiling the Pope; and if we can conceive 
the horror and anger of, say, a devout Roman Catholic 
in South America at the act, we arrive at some parallel 
idea of the chasm that to-day lies between the old Arab 


THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 65 
and the new Turk generation responsible for abolishing 
the Caliphate. 

Curiously enough, however, the same fire of nationalism 
and the same desire for self-determination were burning 
in the Sheikhs of Nain and Endor as in the young Turks, 
for they went on to urge upon me with equal vigour 
these questions: ‘‘ When are the British going to give 
to the Arabs the self-government that they promised 
to them during the war?” and “ Why do the British 
favour the new Jews from Europe in Palestine more 
than the Arabs who have been there for three thousand 
years >?” 

There we were, in that remote spot, with the problems 
of white domination, of Asiatic self-determination, and 
of race-antagonisms as between Asiatics (Arab versus 
Jew), breaking in upon us in wave after wave. As I 
looked round the faces of the dozen younger men who 
had assembled from the village for the talk, it was clear 
that for them these were the supremely absorbing issues 
that were fermenting in their minds. Many of them 
were certainly unable to read ; but they were discussing 
issues identical with those that reverberate in the cloisters 
of Al Azhar University and appear in the leading articles 
of Moslem daily papers from Bengal to Morocco and 
from Thrace to Abyssinia. 

That discussion at Nain leads us to another cause of 
the new ferment in the mind of young Islam. It is 
that the end of the war saw a great extension of white, 
and, in the technical sense, Christian authority over 
Moslem peoples, due largely to the carving of Syria, 
Palestine, Iraq, and Arabia out of the old Turkish Empire. 
This intensified a hundredfold the already critical debate 
of the Moslem mind as to Western civilization—the life 
of Christendom. The moral standards of Western life 

6 


66 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


—its diplomacy and commerce, its absorption in material 
prosperity and in the expansion of its own control over 
other peoples, above all its actions and motives during 
and after the war—are challenged and debated with a 
singularly sustained vehemence wherever the young 
Moslem is assembled with his friends. They see, for 
instance, in Western diplomacy, European and American, 
a far more intense interest in oil than in Armenians. 
They believe that all the acts of Western statesmanship 
are dictated by the desire for imperial expansion or for 
commercial gain, or for both. 

Paradoxically enough, in odd contrast with their 
moral condemnation of Western Christendom (a con- 
demnation, be it noted, of which the touchstone is the 
Christian standard and not the Moslem), we find a swiftly 
increasing appreciation and imitation of Western tech- 
nical science applied to raising the standard of living. 
The sewing-machine and the telephone, the electric light 
and the automobile, the typewriter and the dictaphone, 
the rotary printing press, the street car, and the cinema, 
may seem to be mere mechanical adjustments affecting 
life in its externals. When, however, those forces push 
ever in upon a life that has been practically static for 
centuries they become means of distributing the leaven 
through the lump. The sewing-machine is everywhere 
to-day replacing the hand-sewing of four thousand years. 
The writer met a caravan of camels striding down that 
most ancient pass in the world, the Cilician Pass, and 
carrying in the footsteps of Alexander the Great, of | 
Cicero, and of St. Paul sewing-machines to the mothers 
and daughters of Tarsus. This alone means that the 
minds of the girls are moved toward the West that 
produces these machines, and begin to work in new 
modes. Adolescent boys and girls, the latter with 


THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 67 


their mothers in the harem galleries, witness at the cinema 
pictures of Western romance in which men and women 
meet on an equal plane, and where women have the 
freedom of the wide world—a world in which the relations 
of the sexes are presented in terms of the choice of youth 
by youth on a plane of personal attachment and choice. 
Mary Pickford, Pola Negri, and Gloria Swanson, when 
appearing on the film before tens of thousands of women 
and girls in an environment of Moslem social conditions 
and among people of a relatively low standard of lit- 
eracy, are likely to be more potent instruments of social 
revolution than a hundred books on the theory of the 
family. For the millions of young men who see these 
films also receive a fresh conception of womanhood in 
which higher and lower qualities are strangely blended. 

The discussion thus stimulated in the mind of the 
younger generation is only one element in a fresh hunger 
for new ideas. All the forces acting upon the younger 
and more malleable minds, the shattering impact of 
the war, followed by this intense ferment of discussion 
on nationalism, self-determination, race conflicts, and 
Western civilization, have combined to stimulate a quite 
unprecedented inquisitiveness of mind in Moslem youth. 
If any single thing was true of the pre-war Moslem mind 
it was that it retained the strong, unbroken Islamic 
sense of self-adequacy—the feeling that Islam was able 
to say the last word on any issue. To-day that com- 
placency is gone. Moslem youth is scanning the horizons 
for other truth. Literacy has increased; but reading 
has leaped forward in a still more startling way. In 
particular, the young effendi class—the more intelligent 
business and professional men and men of leisure—are 
absorbing great quantities of this reading. 

An examination of the bookshops frequented by 


68 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Moslems in Beirit, Constantinople, Agra, and Cairo 
to-day as contrasted with, say, 1914, would reveal a 
perfectly amazing development.t The writer found in 
Beirit a score of bookshops in which a constant stream 
of French fiction, of translations into Arabic, of European 
and American literature, and of books written in Arabic 
on a basis of Western reading, was eagerly absorbed. 
Cairo has 217 printing presses from which the production 
averages one book, brochure, or pamphlet in Arabic 
each day of the year. | 

A considerable and increasing proportion of these 
books presents at either first- or second-hand a con- 
siderable amount of material of current Western applied 
science. The literature in many cases assumes the 
open-minded yet critical attitude of twentieth-century 
Western thought. Or it presents, through fiction, the 
pagan, superficial aspects of the structure of the social 
order of the life of Western Europe. Even the attacks 
on Christianity in this literature are less and less from 
a Moslem point of view and more from the point of view 
of the destructive type of higher criticism which (though 
already discredited by Western scholarship) is a useful 
tool in the hands of the modern Moslem critic of Chris- 
tianity. What is only just beginning to be realized is 
that the very assumptions and methods on which that 
higher criticism is built are drastically destructive of 
the more rigid structure of Islam. 

The widespread influence of these varied types of 
literature leads to an outlook that is not Islamic and is. 
not Christian. It is difficult to sum up its characteristics 
in a generalization. But,asa whole, it may be described 

1 See, for the whole of this subject, Christian Litevature in Mos- 


lem Lands, New York, 1923. An authoritative report based 
on thorough investigation. 


THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 69 


as a careless, unsystematic agnosticism, cheerfully 
cynical in outlook on the world, with few enthusi- 
asms save those accompanying the assertion of inde- 
pendence. 

. This should lead to the recognition of the fact that, 
to impregnate the mind of Moslem youth with secular 
Western ideas, to break down through Western commerce 
Moslem traditional habits of business, to replace peasant 
industries with a highly organized factory system, is 
not to move an inch nearer to Christianity. When at 
dawn the factory siren calling youth to the factory has 
drowned the voice of the muezzin calling to prayer, and 
when the factory chimney has replaced the minaret, we 
have not moved toward the Kingdom of God. 

This increasingly secular point of view of the young 
Moslem shows itself in astonishing ways that nearly take 
away the breath of folk to whom the unity of the Islamic 
religion, with its own social and political order and the 
old idea of the brotherhood of Moslems of all races, have 
come to be axiomatic. The most striking development 
here, of course, is the view frankly taken by a considerable 
number of young Turks that the great historic mistake 
made by the Turkish people was in embracing Islam. 
Islam, they say, has kept them in a backwater for cen- 
turies, so far as secular progress is concerned. That, 
they feel, is largely the reason why, while Western 
civilization has leaped forward in wealth and power, 
Turkish strength has steadily diminished. So they tend 
to turn from Islamic to racial, political, and economic 
unity and independence for the hope of the future. 
The marvellous driving force that has inspired Mustafa 
Kemal, perhaps the one essential genius in the world’s 
politics to-day, the young Turks who act with him, and 
the women, like his brilliant wife, who urge his policies 


70 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


forward, is the national conception sung by Mehmed 
Emin Bey : 


‘Tam a lurk? 
My language and race are great.”’ 


‘My language and race,’’ secular ideas, be it noted, 
and not “ my religion,” or “‘ my social system.” 

This divorce of race from religion, indeed this elevation 
of race and nationality into a faith, this break between 
Turkey and the Pan-Islamic policy, and the leaning of 
the young Turk and the young Egyptian to Western ways 
of life and even to Western ways of achieving their own 
separation from Western governmental or financial 
domination, means the dawning of a new day. 

It is not, as might conceivably be the case in the 
Islamic world, a new day simply for manhood. In other 
chapters of this book the life of its womanhood is set 
forth ; and in some places, as will be seen, little that is 
new appears to be happening. When, however, Moslem 
ladies in automobiles join in with nationalist processions 
through the streets of Cairo and the women make speeches 
in the street at times when the procession is held up ; 
and when in centres like Angora, Constantinople, and 
Cairo, Moslem women, inspired by a new ideal of family 
life familiar already in the West, are organized to work 
for a higher minimum age for marriage, equitable divorce 
laws, the abolition of polygamy, and reforms in the 
marriage laws, it is clear that a new day is beginning 
to dawn here also. The writer has before him a late 
Turkish newspaper in which the short story tells of the - 
fight of a young Turk for the right to marry the girl of 
his own choice, one who loves him and whom he loves, 
against the fury of his father, a Turk of the old Moslem 
school, who insists on his marrying a wealthy girl under 


THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 71 


an arrangement made solely by the old man without 
reference to the son’s wish or to the girl’s own desire. 
This is typical of the new ferment regarding the relation 
of the sexes, and of the chasm between the older and the 
younger generations. It is also a symptom of the fact 
that in the Moslem world, as everywhere, the ferment 
of ideas is at once created by and reflected in the periodical 
press of the whole area. The immense expansion of 
newspaper publication in the Moslem world is one of 
the most significant features of this new ferment of 
ideas. 

Young Islam is reading to-day well over 1,500 daily 
and weekly papers, of which just over 700 are in Arabic 
and as many as 350 are in Persian. The influence of 
these runs far beyond the literate population. If you 
go up the Nile Valley, for instance, among the fellaheen 
villages you will see in each village a reader who, with 
the youth as well as the older folk of the village around 
him listening eagerly, reads aloud from the Cairo paper 
the news and the comment of the day. 

Cairo is, of course, both as the intellectual head of 
Islam and as the nerve-centre of forces playing between 
North Africa, Nearer Asia, and Europe, the place of 
greatest ferment. But an isolated city like Baghdad, 
cut off by desert from the play of the world’s life, has a 
dozen newspapers and other periodicals that bring in 
the story of the movements of the earth. 

Among these movements from outside, Bolshevism is 
the most active, but its successes have been sporadic 
and local. Through all this post-war period, all over 
the Moslem world, youth has been subject to the inter- 
mittent waves of Bolshevik influence. In the first years 
after the war a veritable tidal wave of Bolshevik pro- 
paganda poured across the Caucasus into the Arabic, 


72 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the Persian, and the Afghan lands; into North India 
and the Dutch East Indies ; down the A‘gean and across 
Anatolia into Egypt and across North Africa. But 
after the first enthusiasms were exhausted, and youth 
had had time to compare promise with fulfilment and to 
assess the actual working of the machine as contrasted 
with the paper-scheme, a reaction set in. 

The present reactions of young Islam to Bolshevism 
are significantly different in the various countries con- 
cerned. Oddly enough, the most vigorous effect of Bol- 
shevik propaganda among youth in the Moslem world 
is in the Dutch East Indies. There the relatively primi- 
tive Moslems swing towards the most extreme phase of 
sovietization, that is, clancommunism. This is natural, 
as it fits their tribal background far more easily than 
state communism in a national or racial sense. 

In British India we find here and there fervid nuclei 
of Bolshevik feeling. But, in relation to the total mass 
of 70,000,000 Indian Moslems, the element is insignificant 
and shows little sign of growth in volume or influence. 

The furious early advance of Bolshevism like a forest 
fire into Moslem Persia and on into Afghanistan burned 
itself out almost as swiftly as it ran. Disillusionment 
followed close upon the heels of enthusiasm. In Turkey 
the hard, bright flame of nationalism has replaced all 
other movements in the mind of youth. The liaison 
between Angora and Moscow is a diplomatic affair— 
having no relation to movements of the spirit. 

This does not mean that Bolshevism has entirely 
ceased to work as a leaven in youth. It may even be 
that the Soviet idea of political working by occupational 
groups (which is as old as the silversmiths at Ephesus, 
led by Demetrius) may be severed absolutely from the 
Marxist class-war communism with which it is associated 


THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 78 


in Russia, and may be applied by the new generation 
to the working of political institutions in Asia and Egypt. 

At this point we need to warn ourselves against a 
danger. The ‘sound and fury” of these violent tides 
of human youth may hide from our eyes quieter, yet 
deeper and, in the long run, often more powerful streams. 
For instance, a close observer who penetrates into the 
inner forces of the great centres of Moslem life to-day 
will find sturdy and effective young personalities about 
whom little is said and nothing written because they do 
nothing sensational. He will also discover personalities, 
many of them quite young men, who are quietly changing 
the outlook of the neighbourhood, in places remote from 


* the vehement modern centres. Their influence modern- 


izes without occidentalizing ; it usually creates a more 
open and friendly attitude toward the non-Moslem 
world. It stands, as a rule, for a constructive and co- 
operative spirit. 

In a considerable—even a predominant—number of 
cases of this kind that have come under the writer’s 
own notice and that have been conveyed to him by 
correspondents and in conversation, it has proved that 
the power of those young men (and occasionally women) 
has come from the fact that they have been educated 
in one or other of the colleges and universities estab- 
lished from America or Britain, or from both—established 
not to make Western ideas dominant, but to train a new 
and a truly Oriental young leadership. 

They are proof, on the one hand, against the ‘ wild 
and whirling words” of the revolutionary, whether 
Bolshevik or anarchist, and, on the other hand, against 
the blind, arrogant reactionary. 

The young man in question may be a dentist or a 
doctor, a journalist or a lawyer, a teacher or a servant 


TA THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


of government. He has, however, in receiving his 
education for the position that he holds and the work 
that he does, received something else. He has absorbed 
—say at Robert College, Constantinople; the Inter- 
national College, Smyrna; St. Paul’s College, Tarsus ; 
the American University at Beirfit ; the English College 
at Jerusalem, or the American University at Cairo, or 
the College at Asyfitt—a spirit of good-will, a capacity 
for co-operation, a will to progress, a sense of equity 
and of straight-dealing—in a word, the team-spirit. 

It may well be that, at the end of the day, we shall 
discover that the men who have in their lives this less 
explosive ferment, this leaven of human strength of 
character, this blend of progress with permanence, are 
the real constructive forces of the new world in Moslem 
lands. 

The most recent communication that has come out 
of a very difficult part of the Moslem world from an 
experienced and authoritative source is unexpected 
evidence of the working of this type of leadership on 
the side of exploration in religious fellowship. The 
writer says : 


“Abundant evidence is at hand of the desire on the 
part of members of all faiths for tolerant and practical 
application of religious teachings to the common problems 
of every-day life, character, and social relationships.” 


In this connexion there has been formed in this centre 
a prayer-circle of the faiths, in which discussions were 
opened, for example, by a Greek Orthodox layman on 
“Purity ’’; by a Persian Moslem on “ Religion and 
Business ”’ (the interest compelling them to run to two 
sessions); by a Tartar Moslem on “ Morality and Re- 
ligion ’’ (running to three sessions) ; by a Greek Orthodox 


THE YOUTH OF ISLAM 75 


layman on “ Service,’ and by an Armenian Protestant 
on “ Religion and Life.’’ 

It is, then, obvious to-day, wherever you touch the 
life of Islam, that a profound disintegration of the fibre 
of the old life is going on with a thoroughness and a 
speed that increases every day. Looking back over our 
argument, we see how this must be so. When we have 
discounted all the ineffective and evanescent papers, 
the play of the remaining thousand newspapers upon the 
life of young Islam, from Constantinople in the North 
to Khartoum in the South and from Morocco in the West 
to Bengal or Java in the East, is incessant and transform- 
ing. When it is viewed together with the steady and 
increasing flow of popular books, the incessant flicker 
of the cinema films in every city and town, the fresh 
movement of life due to the penetration of the cheap 
motor-car into areas where, a decade ago, the bullock- or 
horse-wagon was the way of transport, the new linking 
up of areas by which to-day the railway-train runs in 
a night across the desert from Egypt to Palestine and 
the motor-service dashes in less than twenty hours from 
Damascus to Baghdad on a route which the camel could 
barely traverse in a week, the total influence is seen to 
be enormous. In addition, we need to note that large 
numbers of Moslem young men now go every year from 
North Africa to earn their living in France. There are 
no precise figures available as to the number of Moslems 
in France. The magnitude of the invasion, however, 
can be assessed from the fact that of one of the most 
primitive of the tribes—the Kabyles—r1oo0,o00 have 
migrated to France, attracted by wages four times 
higher than those paid in Algeria. It is said that 40,000 
of this tribe (who are Berber in origin and whose fore- 
fathers were Christian before the Moslem conquest of 


76 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


North Africa), are living in Paris, beside an unnumbered 
host of Arabs and Turks and other Moslems, 

It is not for us to draw inferences in this chapter as 
to the attitude that should be taken by those outside the 
Moslem world who care, as so many of us do care intensely, 
for the future welfare of its peoples. What we may well 
note here, however, is that so widespread and so deep a 
ferment issuing in so manifold a transformation of out- 
look among Moslem youth calls for a complete revalua- 
tion and reconsideration of the attitude of Christendom 
to the peoples of Islam. Progress can come only through 
co-operation, and if the youths of Christendom and of 
the Moslem world, as well as those of Farther Asia, are 
to help each other, they must understand each other. 
To do that, they must put aside the accepted attitudes 
of past and even of present diplomacies. They must 
cease to think of the Moslem mind as closed against new 
ideas. Especially is it necessary that those who look 
out on the world attempting to see it with Christian 
eyes should revise radically the alinement of their thought 
both as to the resistant attitude of the peoples of the 
Islamic faith and as to the quality of the contacts which 
the civilization of peoples who call themselves by the 
name of Christ should have with those who have been 
born in this astonishing day of new possibility. 


ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 


BY 
C. SNOUCK HURGRONJE, D.Sem.Litt., 


Professor, University of Leiden; Counsellor to the Dutch 
Mimstry of the Colones 


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CHAPTER VI 
ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 


THE map of the world, in its recently revised form, has 
suggested to many sharp-sighted politicians the question 
when and where the next war is to break out, and whether 
it may be possible to prevent a renewed effort to settle 
the political dissensions of mankind by a contest of brute 
force. Hardly anybody will consider such a violent 
solution as durable, but any other issue is despaired of 
by the masters of diagnosis. Among the innumerable 
obstacles to a peaceful settlement none seems to be 
considered so insurmountable as the race conflict. Even 
those who think it possible to arrive at a mutual under- 
standing concerning questions raised by difference of 
religion, language, civilization, or nationality, describe 
the race problem as a chronic illness without remedy. 
The racial characteristics are the only ones a man cannot 
rid himself of from his birth until his death, and the 
increase of the population of our globe, together with the 
decrease of all distances, are unmistakable omens of an 
acute racial conflict in the immediate future. 

The Science of Races is too young to supply us 
with a clear formulation of the problem. Anthropology, 
archeology, comparative linguistics, and ethnography con- 
tribute what they can to direct her steps, but her move- 
ment still lacks security. The criteria she uses are ever 


changing: there is not yet a map of races supported 
79 


80 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


by the consensus of competent scholars. When treating 
race problems of a practical nature even specialists, for 
the sake of simplicity, recur to the popular colour criterion. 
Many of them hold out before us terrifying pictures of 
the dangers menacing the white man from yellow, brown, 
red, and black races—dangers so enormous and so acute 
that all other contrasts in the human world appear to 
be mere trifles in comparison with them. 

The measures recommended by some talented writers 
in order to exorcise the approaching crisis are of a radical 
and violent type. Their starting-point is the absolute 
excellence of the white race, or at least of that part of 
it to which they themselves belong ; so the preservation 
of that portion of mankind is to be secured even at the 
sacrifice of all the rest. We cannot help fancying that, 
if such a view of the question came to be adopted by the 
excellent race, a racial struggle would ensue, compared 
with which the recent war would be no more than a 
child’s game. But, although we must absolutely reject 
all tactics of that sort as inhuman and impracticable, 
we fully agree with the authors alluded to in deeming 
the race problem even more baffling than that of the 
establishment of political harmony between the nations 
of Europe. | 

Under such circumstances one is inclined to search for 
illumination in history, for racial conflicts have demanded 
solution from time immemorial, and an inquiry into the 
attitude of such a large international community as 
that of Islam concerning the question cannot fail to. 
teach us some lessons. 

Now we must bear in mind that the proportion of 
the system of Islam to the preaching of Mohammed was 
that of the full-grown tree to the seed from which it 
sprang: its growth occupied about three centuries. The 


ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 81 


scribes who taught and wrote during that period in 
the central countries of Islam, Arabia, Egypt, Syria, 
Mesopotamia, and Persia, though formally only inter- 
preters of the “revealed” law, actually performed 
legislative work. So deep was their conviction that they 
only enounced what Mohammed would have said if he 
had lived down to their time that they boldly attributed 
their conclusions to the Prophet by means of fictitious 
traditions. Whenever we want to know Mohammed’s 
personal opinion, therefore, we should consult almost 
exclusively the Koran as containing his authentic oracles. 
The system of law, dogmatics, and mysticism which 
assumed to fix everlasting rules for the individual, family, 
economic, and political life of the Moslems, arrived at 
completion in its main features only in the tenth century of 
ourera. This system always left much room for difference 
of opinion as to details. Besides that, there has always 
been a gulf between doctrine and life in Mohammedan 
society ; but, nevertheless, the Moslems all over the world 
show a remarkable unity in most respects, and the 
importance of their unanimous acknowledgment of the 
all-embracing system as the ideal of their international 
community can hardly be overrated. 

Mohammed did not intend to preach anew religion. 
As he conceived it, his religion was the only true one 
from Adam down to the Day of Resurrection, preached 
by all the apostles of God, his predecessors. Several 
times in the Koran ! Allah is said to declare emphatically 
that He sent Mohammed to warn a people, to whom no 
warner had been sent before. Eleven times’? the word 
“ Arabic ’’ occurs in the Koran : it is always to accentuate 

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82 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the fact that this revelation is given in clear Arabic, 
without tortuous wording, so as to cut off all ways of 
exculpation from the heathen Arabs, for whom it is 
destined. There is no contradiction between these 
explicit statements, that Mohammed, the Arabic prophet, 
is sent to the Arabs, and other verses of the Koran, which 
call Mohammed and his mission a blessing for “ man,”’ 
‘mankind,’ or “ the world.’’ On the one hand, these 
words are not to be taken in their widest sense when 
used by a man who during all his life had to do with 
Arabs only and who left to his successors as an unachieved 
task the subjection of Arabia to his religion. On the 
other hand, the fact that he was charged with the con- 
version of Arabia did not diminish the more inclusive 
character of the religion revealed in his Koran, for his 
was but the Arabic edition of the Eternal Book of Allah, 
and, when Jews and Christians rejected his divine mission, 
then in his mind this could be attributed only to corrup- 
tion of their sacred scriptures, which in their unaltered 
form could not but confirm what was revealed to him 
by the only God, whom all of them adored. 

The universalization of the Koran was the natural 
consequence of the attempt of the newly Islamized Arabs 
to conquer the world. The wonderful success of their 
raids was undoubtedly due to the powerful impulse given 
by Mohammed to the energy of the Arabs, united for 
the first time under his banner; but this effect was not 
foreseen by him, much less was it the execution of a plan 
projected by him. 

In full accordance with the former revelations, adhered 
to by the ‘“‘ People of the Sacred Book” (Jews and 
Christians), the Koran teaches the descent of man from 
Adam and Eve (Hawwa), implying the equality of all 
men, notwithstanding the variety of characteristics of 


ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 88 


individuals or groups. The actual multiplicity of lan- 
guages and colours is described in the Koran, next 
to the creation of heaven and earth, as one of the mag- 
nificent signs of Allah’s wisdom,’ without any attempt 
to explain its origin. The Prophet of Arabia had no 
reason to combat, from this point of view, the enmity 
prevailing between human races; his application of the 
principle of equality was directed against the tribal 
fanaticism which divided the Arabs amongst themselves. 
Mohammed did not succeed in eradicating the tribal 
feuds of the Arabs altogether, but he enforced the universal 
recognition of the principle of equality, and he united 
all those tribes, whose division seemed hopeless, in such 
a way that they were able to perform actions amazing 
to the whole world. 

The pregnant expression of Mohammed’s doctrine 
of the unity of mankind is found in a passage of the 
Koran * evidently directed against the mutual quarrelling, 
sarcasm, scorn, and disdain occurring in the community 
of Medina. The exhortation could therefore have in 
view only Arabs, including perhaps a few Jewish followers 
of Mohammed, African, Persian, or Greek slaves, and 
some foreigners who happened to be staying there. 


“The faithful are brethren; therefore make peace 
between your brethren, and fear God. Haply ye may 
obtain mercy. O believers, let not men laugh men 
to scorn who haply may be better than themselves. . 
Omen! We have created you from a male and a female, 
and divided you into groups [the Arab word shu‘db, 
used here, may denote tribes, nations, races or any other 
division of men] and tribes, that ye might know [dis- 
tinguish] one another. The noblest of you in the sight 
of God is the most God-fearing ; verily God is knowing, 
cognizant.” 

* Koran: 30: 2%. 2 Koran : 49: Io-13. 


84 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


The difference of men in outward appearance and 
qualities is explained here in a naive, teleological way 
as serving to distinguish individuals and groups from 
each other. Piety is called the only criterion for the 
estimation of the value of man—his attitude, that is, 
towards God and towards his fellow-creatures. 

This supreme criterion was maintained in the system 
of Islam. Thereon it based a division of mankind into 
three main groups, almost identical with the grouping 
of civilized, half-civilized, and savage men, current 
amongst ourselves. That the degree of civilization was 
made dependent on religion in the flourishing period of 
Islam (A.D. 650-1000) goes without saying; such was 
the prevailing opinion of the Middle Ages. The first 
class were the Moslems, who enjoy the full light of revela- 
tion ; the second the People of the Scripture, like Jews 
and Christians, who, because of their rejecting the mission 
of Mohammed, walk in the dusk, and whom the Moslems 
may only by moral means try to raise to their own 
height ; the third are the heathen, who are to be in- 
corporated into human culture by persuasion or by 
force, and in the worst case to be made innocuous to 
the civilized world. The culture criterion was applied, 
even independently of religion, so as to adopt into the 
second class nations like the Parsis, who, although not 
having sacred books recognized by Mohammed, were 
assimilated to the People of the Scripture on account of 
their social development. 

Moslem world-empire, extending in the eighth century 
from Morocco and Spain to the borders of China, having 
absorbed a great part of the ancient empires and still 
seeing large possibilities of extension, regarded in Southern 
and Eastern Europe as a constant menace, represented 
indeed in the early Middle Ages the acme of civilization. 


ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM _ 85 


At that time no more vanity was necessary for Islam 
to feel called upon to lead humanity to its destination 
than there is now for white men spontaneously to under- 
take such a mission. 

As to the difference of races, the system not only stuck 
to the Koranic edict, but it accentuated its contents 
by fictitious sayings of Mohammed, in which not only 
Arabic tribes, but nations generally, are put on the same 
level. ‘‘ The Arab does not excel the non-Arab, unless 
he is the more pious of the two,”’ is one of these sayings, 
attributed to the Prophet. 

It cannot surprise us that it proved necessary re- 
peatedly to inculcate this principle, if we think of the 
amazing energy shown by the Arabs in the triumphal 
progress of Islam through the world. Once being 
united by religion and having come out of their sterile 
peninsula, those nomads proved able to govern the 
cultivated nations succumbing to their fresh vital force, 
to change the administration of the conquered States 
to such an extent as their interests as overlords 
required, and to induce millions to gather around their 
Prophet’s banner. | 

The Arabic language did no 18s miraculous work than 
the Arabic armies. In almost all the central countries 
of Islam it entirely supplanted the vernacular; to this 
day foreigners are in the habit of calling Syrians, Meso- 
potamians, Egyptians, and North Africans by the name 
of Arabs. During the first century Islamizing a people 
meant Arabizing it. The wonderful language of the 
desert adapted itself with incredible suppleness as an 
instrument for treating the most intricate theological, 
jurisprudential, and philosophical problems, universal 
history, geography, ethnography, grammar, and poetry, 
with the utmost precision and grace. 


86 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Conversion to Islam in those days meant becoming 
an Arab. The new Moslems adopted Arabic names, 
they were annexed as “clients”’ to Arabic tribes, and 
they tried as soon as possible to pass for genuine Arabs. 
Moslem science and literature, indeed, owe more to 
non-Arabs than to Arabs. When we speak of the rich 
Arabic literature and of the prevalence of Arabic science 
in the Middle Ages, we mean the international Moslem 
science and culture which had Arabic for their means 
of expression. It was only Persian, and some time later 
Turkish, which succeeded in obtaining a place in the 
second rank behind Arabic, and even that only after 
swallowing a great part of the Arabic dictionary. Malays, 
Moslem Chinese, Indians, Persians, Turks, and Egyp- 
tians, all of them have accurately to recite the Arabic 
Koran at the beginning of their religious instruction ; 
the divine service they have to perform five times daily 
is full of Arabic formule; on Fridays and on the two 
official yearly festivals they attend an Arabic sermon. 
Although fully authorized to pray in their mother-tongue, 
on formal occasions they prefer praying in Arabic. In 
the principal towns of all Islamic countries there are 
men of letters able to converse in Arabic with their 
colleagues at the other end of the world. | 

The language is only one of many manifestations of 
the uniformity of life and thought, shown by the Moslem 
league of nations. Their common attitude is by no means 
a copy of that of the Arabs at Mohammed’s time, any 
more than the universal Arabic is identical with the 
language of the Koran and of the ancient poets; but all 
those expressions of human life show an Arabic stamp 
characteristic of the central countries of Islam during 
the three centuries of growth of the system. Two Mos- 
lems, from whatever countries, arrive at mutual under- 


ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 87 


standing in every respect sooner than two members of 
any other international association. 

The unrivalled success of the Islamized Arabs is a 
phenomenon too complex to be explained by one or 
two causes; but one of the important factors was cer- 
tainly Mohammed’s strongly accentuated limitation of 
his message to the Arabs. As circumstances transformed 
that Arabic message into a universal one, Islam had 
already become so Arabic to the very marrow that 
non-Arabs had in some degree to change language and 
life to feel at home in it. 

This historical development was not fitted to make 
Mohammed’s principle of equality deeply penetrate the 
minds ofthe Arabs. The Moslem State of the first century 
has rightly been called the Arabian empire. The Arabic 
supremacy was felt by the subjected nations as a heavy 
oppression, particularly by. those who had attained 
the highest degrees of culture before Islam. The artificial 
erafting of individuals, families, and even entire nations 
on the genealogical tree of the Arabs served as a palliative ; 
but its use was naturally limited, and not all converts 
were willing to be naturalized in such a way. At length 
they demanded acknowledgment of their equality or 
even of their superiority on account of their own merits. 
Most of the Arabs, in whom Islam had not even ex- 
tinguished the pagan tribal particularism, were not at 
once ready to accept such demands. They poured out 
streams of ignominy on the heads of those barbarians 
who dared to take up places near or above them at 
Mohammed’s table. 

Reaction did not fail to appear, however. After the 
rise of the Abbasids (A.D. 750) Persians and Turks rose 
to the highest ranks. In the second and third centuries 
of Islam there flourished a rich literature of racial com- 


88 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


petition. The opponents of Arabic prerogatives, in their 
turn, were not content with equality: they proffered 
arguments from history, sacred and profane, to demon- 
strate the inferiority of the Arabic race. Almost all 
Islamized nations partook in this literary strife. The 
non-Arab protagonists took their starting-point from the 
verse of the Koran (49:13) wherein the division of 
mankind into shu‘%b is mentioned, and they applied 
this word specially to non-Arabian ‘races,’ and the 
other one to the ‘‘tribes’”’ of Arabia. Therefore the 
non-Arabian race-fanatics acquired the name of Shu- 
‘abiyya, “racists.” The Arabians vehemently contra- 
dicted the arguments of the “ barbarians.’’ It is curious 
to see all the finesse of Arabic prose and poetry used on 
both sides in this sometimes amusing, in the bulk, dis- 
tasteful, literature, and still more curious to observe 
that some of the literary “racists ’’ are of pure Arabic 
descent, whereas some of the defenders of the Arabic 
prerogatives have no Arabic blood in their veins. 

This literature of insult had its following, but this 
was not the people in general, and least of all the scribes. 
These honestly upheld the religious principle of equality, 
albeit with just recognition of the nobility of the Arabs, 
based on their merits for Islam. Thus the’ doctrine 
admitted of no caliphs except those from Mohammed’s 
tribe, the Koraish ; this rule was only the theory of what | 
was practised for six centuries, down to the fall of the 
Abbasids. Then, in the opinion of many interpreters 
of the law, the marriage of an Arabic woman with a non- 
Arab, of a woman of Koraish with a non-Koraishite, of 
a female descendant of Mohammed with a man of another 
family, is deemed to be a mésalliance, to be permitted 
only for exceptional reasons. But even these modest 
rules of nobility have never acquired the consensus 


ISLAM AND THE RACE PROBLEM 89 


needed to give them dogmatic force. The opinions on 
the connubium prevailing in different countries were in 
a large measure dependent on social circumstances. 
Since the Ottoman dynasty had obtained actual su- 
premacy in the sixteenth century, the scribes as well 
as the mass of the people gave up their opposition against 
Caliphs of non-Koraishite or even of non-Arab extraction. 
Pamphlets have been written by descendants of Mo- 
hammed to defend the Turkish Caliphate, arguing that 
the value of man is determined by merit, not by birth. 

Practically in the Moslem world neither birth nor 
colour has prevented men from reaching the highest 
positions. Persians, Turks, Mongolians, Berbers, and 
Negroes have occupied the most important state offices 
and acquired the greatest fame in scholarship. Islam 
offered a chance to all races, and all of them have availed 
themselves of it in the measure of their talents. In the 
mosque of Mecca during the lecturing hours students 
and professors with all gradations of complexion: coal- 
black, green (as the Arabs call a somewhat brighter 
nuance), brown, yellow, and white, may be seen frater- 
nally gathering, and the same variety is shown by the 
citizens of the Holy City, sometimes even by the members 
of one family. The old propensity to mutual scorn, 
combated in the “ race-verse ’’ of the Koran, has not yet 
entirely died out, but the principle of equality is respected 
in practice as well as in theory. Moslem newspapers, 
when discussing the actual policy of European States 
with regard to Oriental countries, often take a pride in 
stating that political injustice, as represented by man- 
dates, protectorates, or colonies, where ‘“ natives”’ are 
practically enslaved by their oppressors on account of 
their colour and race, have never found support in Moslem 
doctrine nor a place in Moslem history. 


90 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


The attempt of Islam to unite all mankind under one 
banner has not been successful. The religious belief which 
underlies this form of civilization was unacceptable to a 
vast number, and the legal system, destined to regulate 
the whole of human life by unchangeable rules, showed 
too clearly the traces of the place where and the time 
when it took its origin, to become the universal law. 
Besides this, the early division of the theocratic Caliphate 
‘into numberless despotic kingdoms, making war upon 
one another in spite of their Moslem doctrine, stood in 
the way of the continuation of the union. But the 
race-paragraph of the system of Islam contributed much 
to the initial success and redounds to the perpetual honour 

_of this international community. 

Mohammed did not claim originality for his religion, 
and Christianity, to which he so often referred, had 
already removed the difference between Greek and Jew, 
Barbarian and Scythian, bond and free. But the league 
of nations founded on the basis of Mohammed’s religion 
took the principle of equality of all human races so 
seriously as to put to shame other communities. White 
men’s churches kept closed to coloured Christians, a 
missionary boycotted on account of his marrying a 
negro woman, and the habit of lynching, are often quoted 
by Moslems as instances of the backwardness of Christian 
society. The ideal of a league of human races has indeed 
been approached by the Moslem community more nearly 
than by any other. | 


1 Colossians, 3: II. 


THE REACTION OF MOSLEM INDIA TO 
WESTERN ISLAM 


BY THE REV. 
MURRAY T. TITUS, B.L., 


District Superintendent, Methodist Episcopal Church, 
North India Conference, Moradabad District 


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CHAPTER VII 


THE REACTION OF MOSLEM INDIA TO 
WESTERN ISLAM 


MosLeM India, numbering 68,735,2331 persons, forms 
the largest single group of Moslems in the world. Dr. 
Zwemer points out, “‘ The province of Bengal has a larger 
Moslem population than all Arabia, Egypt, and Persia 
together. The number of Mohammedans in the Punjab 
alone is nearly as large as in Egypt.’ Not only is it 
the largest group in the world, but it is also probably 
the most mixed group—mixed as to racial origin and sects. 
Here are the Arab, Persian, Turanian, and Mongol all 
blended with the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian strains in 
a community which comprises most of the various shades 
of theological opinion found in the Moslem world. The 
Sunni, the Shii, the Wahhabi, the Ismaili, the modern 
Mu'‘tazili, and the heterodox Ahmadi are all here. But, 
in spite of these wide variations, there is present that 
element of cultural coherence, characteristic of the 
Moslem world as a whole, and an essential community 
of thought and point of view that on occasion is able to 
speak with authority through its various representative 
bodies, like the All-India Moslem League, the Central 
Khilafat Committee, and the All-India Educational 
Conference, and the Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind. 

Without question Moslem India very keenly feels her 


1 Census of 1921, 
93 


94 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


burden of responsibility for the welfare of the world of 
Islam. Geographically she knows herself to be the centre 
of that world, and, because of her contact with the deep 
spiritual currents so natural to the life of India, she is 
second to none in her zeal for the Faith. As The Muslim 
Herald, Madras, puts it: 

‘* Situated as India is between the Far Eastern Muslims 
and the Muslims of the Near East, holding easy inter- 
course with Arabia, Persia, and Egypt on the one hand, 
and the Far Eastern countries on the other, it is obviously 
the duty of Islamic India to take the lead in advancing 
Islamic learning.’”’ 


It is with this same conviction of responsibility for the 
Faith that the Ahmadi missionary goes to the ends of 
the earth, and the Ali brothers urge the claims of the 
Caliphate. 

Moslem India to-day, therefore, is sensitive to all that 
takes place in the whole Moslem world: trouble on the 
Iraq frontier over the possession of Mosul oil, Egyptian 
disappointment over the Sudan, the possibility of foreign 
intervention in the settlement of the Hejaz affairs, the 
triumph of the Riff armies, dissatisfaction of Palestinian 
Arabs with the Mandate, are all broadcast to the ends 
of India from day to day by the ever-growing Moslem 
vernacular and English press, with the result that even 
in the villages, to a large extent, Moslems are alive to 
what is happening to their brothers in various parts of 
the world, and are prepared to show their sympathy. 

The attitude of the Indian Moslem is frankly Pan- 
Islamic. Since the days of the well-known promoter 
of modern Pan-Islamism, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, India 
has ever shown a warm response to the extension of the 
power and prestige of the Caliphate over the Moslem 
nations of the world. Even during the Great War, when 


MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 95 


Moslem Indians were fighting the armies of the Caliph, 
they were ever and anon seeking to justify their seemingly 
inconsistent action with the argument that, because they 
were helping the victorious Allies, they would be able 
on that account to help secure better peace terms for 
the Caliph and the Moslem world, as a reward for their 
loyalty. In fact, as soon as the war was over, the 
organization known as the Central Khilafat Committee, 
with headquarters in Bombay, was started, and large 
sums of money were secured to press for the restoration 
of Turkey to sovereignty, and to free Arabia, Syria, 
Palestine, and Mesopotamia from foreign control, all of 
which centred around the prime object of the preserva- 
tion of the Caliphate. A delegation was sent to London 
and to the Peace Conference at Paris, an extensive pro- 
paganda was kept up in both India and England, and 
great was the disappointment at the terms given to 
Turkey by the ineffective Treaty of Sévres. The deep 
interest of Indian Moslems in the preservation of the 
Caliphate is clearly summed up in a paragraph of an 
address presented by the Indian Khilafat Deputation to 
the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, at Delhi on January 109, 
1920, which reads: 


“The preservation of the Khilafat, as a temporal no 
less than a spiritual institution, is not so much a part of 
their [the Indian Moslems’] faith, as the very essence 
thereof ; and no analogies from other creeds that tolerate 
the lacerating and devitalizing distinction between things 
spiritual and things temporal, between the Church and 
the State, can serve any purpose save that of clouding 
and befogging the clearest of issues. Temporal power 
is of the very essence of the institution of the Khilafat, 
and Mussulmans can never agree to any change in its 
character or to the dismemberment of its Empire.’’ } 

1 The Indian Khilafat Delegation Publications, No, I, p. 6. 


96 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


But not only were the Sunni Moslems interested in the 
preservation of the Caliphate. When it became known 
that Turkey was herself making plans for the abolition 
of her connexion with it, two of the leading Shii Moslems 
of India, Sir Syed Ameer Ali and H.H. the Agha Khan, 
submitted their famous letters of protest to Turkey, and 
did all that could be done to show how seriously the 
religious feelings and prestige of the whole Moslem world 
would be injured by such a revolutionary step. 

Then, of a sudden, came the message announcing the 
banishment of the Caliph and the abolition of the Turkish 
Caliphate. Reuter’s message, however, could not be 
accepted as authentic by the distracted Moslem leaders. 
Cables were sent in feverish haste both to the banished 
Caliph and to Mustafa Kemal Pasha asking for authorita- 
tive information. With what distress and consternation 
the whole Moslem community was affected may be 
gathered from a telegraphic reply to a message from 
Mustafa Kemal himself in which he had verified the 
information that had reached India. ‘This reply, dated 
March II, 1924, sent jointly by the Central Khilafat 
Committee and the Jamuat-ul-Ulama-1-Hind, reads as 
follows : 


“The news so far received from Turkey regarding 
the abolition of the Khilafat has caused deep distress 
and consternation among young Indian Moslem brethren. 
The Mussulmans of India are not partisans favouring the 
retention of the Khilafat as the monopoly of any par- 
ticular family or the perquisite of any individual. They 
entirely dissociate themselves from any desire to intervene 
in the national affairs of their Turkish brethren, who are 
quite competent to deal with them. But they are 
deeply concerned with the question of the retention or | 


1 Associated Press message, published in The Pioneey, March 
16, 1924. 


MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 97 


the abolition of the office of Khalifa itself, which is the 
very essence of the Islamic faith, and was designed to 
maintain and conserve the ideal of Islamic brotherhood 
through a definite and well-established institution. It 
is true that when, in the hour of his need, the Khalifa 
called upon the members of the world-wide Moslem 
brotherhood to assist him and his nation, the response 
of the Moslem world was very poor; but it is equally 
true that this was for want of a properly and effectively 
functioning Khilafat organization. As a consequence 
of this not only Turkey, but the entire Moslem world, 
suffered grievously. But we learned our lesson in the 
terrible school of suffering, and awakened at last to a 
proper sense of the need of a reformed and renovated 
Khilafat. 

“Indian Mussulmans expected that Your Highness, 
after achieving such a well-earned and signal success, 
would revive Islam’s fundamental institution of the 
Khilafat, purging it of such excrescences as were not 
required by the Shariat, but were the growth of personal 
greed and dynastic ambitions, and re-establish it on a 
firm democratic basis. But the entire abolition of the 
institution of the Khilafat, just at the time when the 
Moslem world was showing unmistakable signs of an 
awakening, destroys all our expectations. We believe 
that the Khilafat and the Republic are not incompatible 
with each other, and that the continuation of the Khilafat 
after its reform will not only not be detrimental to the 
internal unity of Turkey, but will also be a source of 
strength to the Turkish nation in its relations abroad. 

“We would, in any case, implore Your Highness and 
the National Assembly not to belittle the importance 
and advantages of the continuation of the institution of 
the Khilafat, and its re-establishment on true democratic 
foundations. The existence of the Khilafat does not, of 
course, depend upon the good-will of any particular 
Moslem nation or state, but Turkey, as the last great 
Moslem Power, is best fitted to remain associated with 
the Khilafat, and this connexion, we fervently trust, 

8 


98 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


will benefit not only the rest of the Islamic world, but 
Turkey herself. If the National Assembly’s decision 
abolishes the institution of the Khilafat itself, it is bound 
to cause a diversion and dissipation of energy and strength 
in the Moslem world, and would open the door to the 
mischievous ambitions of hosts of undeserving claimants. 
Seventy million Indian Mussulmans appeal to their 
brethren of the National Assembly to reconsider their 
decision, so far as it relates to the abolition of the office 
of the Khalifa itself, and give an opportunity to the 
delegation of Indian Mussulmans, which desire to visit 
Angora, to make fuller representation on the subject.” 


This was the beginning of India’s rude awakening, 
and ever since March 1924, Indian Moslems have been 
seeking for the proper mental adjustment that will 
enable them fully to understand what it is that Turkey 
has done to herself and to the Islamic world. 

The more liberal-minded are inclined to agree that 
Kemal Pasha was right in removing the Caliphate from 
Turkey. They are quite prepared to admit that the 
Caliphate, as it has been constituted in the past, was 
inconsistent with the development of a modern republican 
form of government. Sir Muhammad Iqbal, the well- 
known philosopher-poet of India, defends the action 
of the Grand National Assembly in a scholarly essay on 
Ijtihad. In discussing the point whether it is contrary 
to the spirit of Islam to vest the Caliphate in an elected 
Assembly, rather than in a single person, this learned 
writer says : : 


‘ The religious doctors of Islam, in Egypt and India, 
as far as I know, have not yet expressed themselves on 
this point. Personally, I believe the Turkish view is 
perfectly sound. ... The republican form of govern- 
ment is not only thoroughly consistent with the spirit 


MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 99 


of Islam, but has also become a necessity in view of the 
new forces that are set free in the world of Islam.” } 


Sir Muhammad and this school of political thinkers 
agree that the Caliphate, or Universal Imamate, has failed 
in practice, and that now the time has come for every 
nation of the Islamic world “‘ to sink into her own deeper 
self, temporarily focus her vision on herself alone, until 
all are strong and powerful to form a living family of 
republics.”” Then he conceives that in due time the old 
Caliphate idea, born of Arabian imperialism of the earlier 
centuries of Islam, will be displaced by a League of Moslem 
Nations, “‘ which recognizes artificial boundaries and 
racial distinctions for facility of reference only, and 
not for restricting the social horizon of its members.” 

The question that immediately began to be asked in 
India after the banishment of the Caliph, Abdul Mejid 
Khan, was, ‘‘ Who is Caliph?” The first inclination 
was to hold to the view that the deposed Caliph was still 
Caliph de jure, and should be recognized as such, since he 
had been deposed, not by the world of Islam, but by 
only one part thereof. Messages expressing warm affec- 
tion and allegiance were immediately sent to him, and 
in due course comfortable life-pensions totalling Rs. 6,000 
per mensem, were granted him by the Nizam of Hyderabad 
and the Begum of Bhopal. It is now recognized, of course, 
that there is no Caliph, and accordingly reference to him 
is omitted from the Friday sermon. 

The assumption of the title and office of Caliph by 
King Hussein of the Hejaz was met in India by prompt 
repudiation. The reasons for complete dislike of this 


1 The above and the following quotations from Sir M. Iqbal 
are from an unpublished essay on Jjtihad which he very kindly 
permitted the writer to use. 


100 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Hashimite family which are set forth in the following 
editorial from The Muslim Herald, Madras, are alleged 
to be their dependence on British bayonets and gold 
for support of their pet schemes. The editor of the 
Herald says: 


“ The affairs in the Holy Land [Arabia] to-day de- 
monstrate how unreal the Treaty Settlements in this 
portion of the world have proved themselves to be. 
These settlements aimed, it need hardly be said, at (I) 
the unification of Arabia into a strong confederation; ... 
(2) the constitution of a strong and, nominally, at any 
rate, independent Muslim State such as would satisfy 
the Muslim sentiment that the Holy Places should not 
be under the protection of any but purely independent 
Muslim States. Neither of these objects, however, has 
the treaty fully secured. The Arab States are at present 
as far from developing into a strong, unified confederation 
under the auspices of the Sheriffians as they were ever 
before. Kingdoms are not made strong and independent 
at the mere wish of a foreign potentate. We see, there- 
fore, the spectacle of all the three Sheriffian States—the 
Hejaz, Iraq, Trans-Jordania—declining into nominal 
dependencies at the mercy of an alien power for their 
very existence. The Trans-Jordanian administration has 
been dubbed incapable and corrupt; the Iraquian is 
weak, and, at any rate, there is no contentment in the 
land ; while, in the Hejaz, Hussein’s rule and his treat- 
ment of all the Hajis especially stink in the nostrils of 
the world at large. The Sheriffians’ sanction for their 
tule is the British bayonet without which behind their 
back they would have been nowhere now, and this very 
support brings down upon them the execration of their 
people, and makes their positions as insecure as that of 
hated sovereigns can be with a people whose loyalty is 
dependent on the sword of a dominating ally.”’ 


. 1 The Muslim Herald, September 20, 1924, p. 7. 


MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 101 


Since the “traitor ’’ Hussein is so cordially disliked 
by all persuasions of Indian Moslems, it is not surprising 
that the attack of Ibn Saud, King of Nejd, on the Hejaz 
was welcomed rather than deplored. True it was that 
bloodshed in the vicinity of the Holy Places was regarded 
with regret, but, when it became apparent that Ibn Saud 
was coming off victorious, feelings of regret were drowned 
in feelings of joy over the abdication of Hussein, and 
the King of Nejd was proclaimed the saviour of the Holy 
Places of Islam. 

As for the future of the Caliphate, Indian Moslems are 
living in high hopes. Keen interest is being taken in 
the proposed Moslem world conference to discuss the 
future of the Caliphate, and to elect a Caliph. While 
King Fuad of Egypt, the Amir of Afghanistan, and Ibn 
Saud of Nejd are being mentioned as possibilities, yet a 
Turkish Caliph is still the desire of many Indian Moslems. 
As stated by the Muslim Outlook, Lahore, recently, ‘ the 
chief reason why some Indian Muslims would like to 
see the Caliphate restored to Turkey is because the 
Turks are independent and able to defend their inde- 
pendence.” 

Before we go further in our study of the reaction of 
Moslem India to specific developments in Turkey and 
elsewhere, it is necessary to notice the Indian Moslem 
attitude toward the whole general break-up of old ideas 
and customs that have for long held sway, and have 
been considered indispensable to Islam. In other words, 
what is India’s attitude toward the modern view of 
Ijtihad, or the “exercise of independent thought in 
Mohammedan Law,” that is evidently prevalent among 
the powerful leaders of Turkey? Perhaps, as Sir 
Muhammad Iqbal suggests, “it is a bit too early to 
judge the reaction ” in India, but at the same time, in 


102 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


his essay on Ijtihad above referred to, he makes some 
very pertinent remarks which are worth considering : 


“We find that the idea of Jjtihad, reinforced and 
broadened by modern philosophical ideas, has long been 
working in the religious and political thought of the 
Turkish nation. We in India have practically no know- 
ledge of the intellectual life of modern Turkey. Nobody 
in India knows, for instance, that. Halim Sabit has 
developed a new theory of Muhammadan Law grounded 
on modern sociological concepts. The series of articles 
in which he developed this theory was, as far as I know, 


never translated in India. ... The little knowledge 
that I possess of the thought-currents of Turkey is 
derived from German sources. . . . If the renaissance 


of Islam is a fact, and I believe it is a fact, we too, one 
day, like the Turks, will have to re-evaluate our intellectual 
inheritance, and, if we cannot make any original con- 
tribution to the general thought of Islam, we may, by 
healthy conservative criticism, serve, at least, as a check 
on the rapid movement of Turkish Liberalism.” 


The authority above mentioned, following the same 
line of thought as that developed by Moulavi Cheragh 
Ali, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, and Sir Syed Ameer Ali, 


considers : 


«That with the return of new life the inner catho- 
licity of the spirit of Islam is bound to work itself out, 
in spite of the rigorous conservatism of our doctors. And 
I have no doubt that a deeper study of the enormous 
legal literature of Islam is sure to rid the modern critic 
of the superficial opinion that the Law of Islam is sta- 
tionary and incapable of development. Unfortunately, 
the conservative Moslem public of this country is not 
quite ready for a critical discussion of Figh [canon law], 
which, if undertaken, is likely to displease most people 
and raise sectarian controversies.”’ 


MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 103 


This Indian advocate of liberal ideas declares further 
that the founders of the four schools of Moslem juris- 
prudence never did claim finality for their reasonings 
and interpretations. Therefore, he argues: 


“The claim of the present generation of Moslem liberals 
to reinterpret the foundational legal principles in the 
light of their own experience and the altered conditions 
of modern life is perfectly justified.” 


On the question of the separation of Church and 
State, as carried out in Turkey, our Indian authorities 
are, generally speaking, true to the conservative tendency 
that Sir Muhammad Iqbal indicates in dealing with 
the whole subject of reform : 


“There are at present in Turkey, two main lines of 
thought represented by (1) the Nationalist Party, and 
(2) the Party of Religious Reform. The point of supreme 
interest with the Nationalist Party is, above all, the State, 
and not religion.... They, therefore, reject old ideas 
about the function of State and religion and accentuate 
the separation of Church and State. ... I think it is 
a mistake to suppose that the idea of State is more 
dominant and rules all other ideas embodied in the 
system of Islam. In Islam the spiritual and the temporal 
are not two distinct domains. ... In Islam it is the 
same reality which appears as Church looked at from one 
point of view and State from another.... Islam isa 
single, unanalysable reality, which is one or the other 
as. your point of view varies. The truth is that the 
Turkish Nationalists assimilated the idea of the separation 
of Church and State from the history of European political 
ideas, without understanding the nature of primitive 
Christianity which-largely determined its evolution in 
Europe, where State and Church confronted each other 
as distinct powers with interminable boundary disputes 
between them. Such a thing could never happen in 


104. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Islam, for Islam was from the very beginning a civil 
society, having received from the Koran a set of simple 
legal principles which, as experience subsequently proved, 
carried great potentialities of expansion and development 
by interpretation. The nationalist theory of the State, 
therefore, is misleading, and open to grave objections 
from the Islamic standpoint, inasmuch as it suggests a 
duality between Church and State which does not exist 
in Islam.”’ 


The Nationalist Movement in Egypt and Turkey has 
begotten a marked response in India. But this interest 
seems to centre in the possible power that will be added 
to the world of Islam from the strengthening of the 
units in that world, rather than in the manner of actual 
national development itself. It is well known in India 
that the Turks are the leading nationalists of the world 
of Islam, and that they are even inclined to place love 
of country above love of religion. Maulana Muhammad 
Ali, the great nationalist and Khilafat worker in India, 
in an address in the Jama Masjid, Aligarh, immediately 
following the announcement of the banishment of the 
Caliph, expressed his disappointment in the Turkish 
attitude toward Islam when he said : 


“ During my stay in Paris had I not reason to weep 
when one of our best coadjutors, who was a Turk, had 
said to me at my own dinner-table, in all seriousness, 
that the Turks would have fared better if they had never 
embraced Islam ? ”’ 4 


In India the attitude runs to the other extreme and 
it is common to hear the expression, ‘‘I am a Moslem 
first, and an Indian afterwards.”’ 

It is doubtful if many Indian Moslems appreciate at 


1 Associated Press Message of March 8, 1924. 


MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 105 


all the strong national feelings of the Turks. Dr. Iqbal 
thinks that the supplanting of Arabic by Turkish in 
religious exercises is sure to be condemned by most 
Moslems in India, and the following sentiments expressed 
by Zia, the poet of Turkish Nationalism, as quoted by 
him, would be resented rather than applauded by his 
co-religionists in India : 


“The land where the call to prayer resounds in 
Turkish ; where those who pray understand the meaning 
of their religion; the land where the Koran is learnt 
in Turkish ; where every man, big or small, knows full 
well the command of God; O son of Turkey! that land 
is thy fatherland ! ” 


In India Arabic still prevails as the language of religion, 
and any move to displace it with Urdu or any other 
vernacular would, as indicated above, be met with the 
highest disfavour, for this would savour of disloyalty to 
the universal Faith. 

The Indian Moslem’s strongest reaction to the nation- 
alist movements in other parts of the Moslem world is 
to be found in the movement for the development of 
a strong communal spirit. In fact, the present indica- 
tions are that the whole of the Moslem population in 
India is opposed to any further modification or extension 
of the Reforms Act in India granting a larger measure 
of Home Rule, unless and until the interests and position 
of the Moslem community are more carefully safeguarded 
than they are at present. The present position seems 
to be to stress the development of a strong community 
in league with the world forces of Islam above the de- 
velopment of a programme of Indian Nationalists. To 
this end, it is apparent, the present activity of the various 
organizations is dedicated. The Khilafat Committee 


106 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


is interested chiefly in (zr) the coming Islamic World 
Congress that is to elect a Caliph and provide for the 
protection of the Holy Places in Arabia ; (2) the removal 
of all foreign and non-Moslem influence from Arabia, 
Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia (a group of countries 
commonly called the Jazirat-ul-Arab) ; and (3) tanzim, 
or the organization and improvement of the Moslem 
community in India. , 

Much emphasis is being laid on the so-called National 
Islamic schools, chief of which is the Jama Mullia 
Islamia, or the National Moslem University of Aligarh. 
In these the aim, according to Maulana Muhammad Ali, 
the founder of the Jamia, is to turn out not only young 
men of culture according to modern standards, but also 
true Mussulmans imbued with the spirit of Islam, and 
possessing enough knowledge of their religion to be 
able to stand by themselves as sufficiently independent 
units in the army of Islam’s missionaries.} 

Therefore in this programme of “ National ’’ education 
an intimate knowledge of the Koran is regarded as a 
necessity, likewise a good knowledge of Arabic and the 
usual theological studies, including the commentaries on 
the Koran, the Traditions, Canon Law, Systematic 
Theology, and the History of Islam. In this connexion 
there is no development that is more truly national, 
while being at the same time Moslem, than the establish- 
ment of the Osmania University in Hyderabad, Deccan, 
where degree and post-graduate courses are taught 
entirely in Urdu, English being taught only as a second 
language. The Moslem University of Aligarh, the foun- 
dations of which were laid by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 
his Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, is still the 


1 Muhammad Ali, A Scheme of Studies for National Muslim 
Educational Institutions in India, pp. 4, 5. 


MOSLEM INDIA AND WESTERN ISLAM 107 


premier Moslem educational institution of the country 
and may be said to derive no small share of its present- 
day interest in the progress and advancement of the 
Moslem community in India from the example being 
set by Turkey and Egypt. 

The emancipation of woman, as it is being carried out 
in the lands of the Near East, is viewed with mixed 
feelings in India. There are many advocates of the 
larger freedom among Moslems, and the tendency is in 
some quarters for greater freedom to prevail. But it 
is significant of the clinging conservatism of India that, 
at the Bombay Provincial Moslem Ladies’ Conference, 
held at Poona recently— 


“While the ladies decided on going in for enlighten- 
ment by resort to modern education, they did not lose 
sight of the fact that they had special functions to perform 
as distinct from those which the opposite sex were called 
on to do. The Poona ladies pressed for reform on 
cautious lines. They did not despise the purdah [veil]. 
Indeed, their chief function there was to show how 
enlightenment was not incompatible with the furdah, 
and how they could learn the most effectively to dis- 
charge the duties they had been called on by their Maker 
to undertake, without throwing themselves into the 
modern feminist movements in Europe and America. 
It was their ambition to be better mothers and wives 
[rather] than indifferent clerks or lawyers or states- 
men.’ + 


None the less, there are Moslem women who are fear- 

lessly pushing forward the crusade to secure equal rights 

for themselves and their sisters, so that the day will 

come when Moslem women in India will be as free as 

they give promise of being in Turkey and Egypt. In 
1 The Muslim Herald, Madras, October 25, 1924, p. 6. 


108 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the matter of divorce, while in Turkey there is now 
equality for men and women before the law, yet in India, 
says Dr. Iqbal: 


‘‘ A Muslim woman who wishes to get rid of an unr 
desirable husband cannot do so without becoming an 
apostate. Nothing could be more distant from the aims 
of a missionary religion.” 


Therefore, in his opinion, a radical revision of the Mo- 
hammedan law of divorce is badly needed. 

From the foregoing discussion it is clear that Moslem 
India is at the cross-roads. She realizes that her life 
is vitally connected with the world-currents of Islam, 
and she has the conviction that somehow she is the 
special custodian of the faith of the fathers. Her liberal 
leaders are striving to be progressive, but not too pro- 
gressive. The masses are, for the most part, still led 
by the orthodox mulvis, and reflect the mind of their 
leaders in strong aversion to radical reform and in the 
strictest adherence to all that is Moslem, so far as they 
understand the term. Moslem India is awake. The 
two things that have aroused her from her lethargy in 
the last half-century are unmistakably the revolutionary 
modern education movement, inaugurated by Sir Syed 
Ahmad Khan, coupled with the unfading vision of a 
federated world of Islam. Having the courage of their 
convictions, Indian Moslems are not content to sit in 
silence and let the world go by. They are ever ready 
to take part in international Islamic affairs of moment, 
and, in the words of William Lloyd Garrison, they are in 
earnest, they will not equivocate, they will not retreat 
a single inch, and they will be heard ! 


THE PRESENT ATTITUDE OF CHRISTENDOM 
TO THE PEOPLES OF THE MOSLEM WORLD 


BY THE REV. 
JOHN E. MERRILL, Ph.D., 


Principal, Boys’ High School, Aleppo ; formerly President, 
Central Turkey College, Aintab 





CHAPTER VIII 


THE PRESENT ATTITUDE OF CHRISTENDOM 
TO THE PEOPLES OF THE MOSLEM WORLD 


THERE is throughout Christendom a growing interest ~ 
in the peoples of foreign countries. Of its extent in 
America the success of publications like The National 
Geographic Magazine and Asia is an index, while in 
Europe it is of much longer standing. There is likewise 
in Christendom a growing readiness to view the customs 
and convictions of other peoples with toleration, and even 
with sympathy. Yet, in the background, there exist 
deep-rooted prejudices, and at any time a wave of 
nationalism may accentuate racial incompatibilities and 
sow afresh the seeds of distrust and ill-will. 

Each of these tendencies has shared in forming the 
sentiment of Christendom regarding the Moslem peoples. 
During the war, and especially since the armistice, the 
attention of Christendom has been focussed upon Islam 
as never since those days when, in the sixteenth century, 
Europe was threatened with invasion by the Turks. The 
attitude toward the Moslem world which is to result 
from this new interest is a matter of prime concern to 
the future Christian Church. 

For, in the first place, this attitude will determine the 
future action of the peoples of Christendom toward the 
peoples of Islam. A Christendom which sees in Islam _ 


a menace will prepare for self-defence. A Christendom 
111 


s 


112 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


which sees in Islam an enemy will plan how that enemy 
may be destroyed. A Christendom which sees in Islam 
a rival faith will gird itself to compete for world su- 
premacy. Only a Christendom which sees in the Moslem 
peoples brothers and sisters in need of help will have the 
will to help them. The past is full of proofs that fear, 
hatred, and rivalry bear only bitter and costly fruits, 
demonstrating their own futility. Only in the path 
of helpfulness is there hopefulness, and we help sincerely 
only those whom we sincerely love. 

This attitude will determine, also, the future dis- 
position of the Moslem people toward Christendom. For, 
in a real degree, they may be expected to act toward 
us as we have acted toward them. It is common know- 
ledge that Moslems everywhere are in reaction now 
against the imperialistic diplomacy of Christendom. 
Christendom is reaping that which it has sown. 

Educated Moslems in India, in Egypt, in Syria, and 
in Turkey are reading books and articles written by 
Christians about Islam. Often translations from these 
publications appear in Moslem papers in the vernacular. 
The tenor of a single article or of a single citation may 
be regarded by Moslems as characteristic of the attitude 
of Christendom in general, with corresponding effect 
upon Moslem sentiment. | 

Further, there are in Christian countries many Moslem 
immigrants. They share the freedom of these countries, 
but they suffer from their inequalities, and they realize 
that often the best of these countries is withheld from 
them. Their hearts fill with resentment and bitterness 


< 


at the exclusiveness and the unfriendly spirit manifested 


toward them. “‘ We have nothing to say against the 
American Government,” said a Moslem in conversation 
not long ago, “‘ but we have many things to say against 


CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 113 


the American people.” No doubt ignorance of the 
language of the country and difference in religion have 
contributed greatly to the peculiar isolation of the Moslems 
in America. Without doubt, also, many Christians 
could be found ready to extend a sincere and hearty 
welcome, if the need were understood and the necessary 
opportunity provided. Yet it remains true that the 
Ahmadiya Movement, with its missionary centre for 
America in Chicago, is able to conduct among the negro 
population of that city an effective propaganda for 
Islam, based upon the racial inequality which charac- 
terizes Christian civilization, as compared with the / 
brotherhood of Islam which knows no colour line. When 
Moslem immigrants write of their experiences to their 
relatives and friends at home, the report of this prevalent 
unsympathetic attitude must have great weight in 
forming an opinion unfavourable to Christianity. 

In the Moslem countries, likewise, there have been for 
centuries many representatives of Christianity, adherents 
of the ancient Churches and representatives of Western 
Christendom. The Moslems have not failed to study 
with care the spirit of these Christians. There have 
been happy instances in which Moslems have been 
attracted. Said a Moslem not long since to a native 
Christian in Turkey, “‘ If all the Christians had been like 
you, these events [1915-19] would not have happened.” 
It was a Moslem, attracted by the Gospel, who said years 
ago, “If the Christians lived the Gospel, we all should 
be Christians within fifty years.’’ Christians often are 
not aware of the influence exerted silently by their 
lives. Only a crisis may reveal it. But wherever 
Christians, of whatever race, show themselves to the 
Moslems as grasping, unreliable, and insincere, they can 
but expect the Moslems to turn against Christianity. 

9 


114 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


It may be added that the attitude of Christendom 
toward Islam furnishes to Christendom an involuntary 
revelation of its own spirit. Only the Christ-like heart 
is perfectly Christian. The Moslem problem provides 
an automatic test of the conformity of Christendom to 
the mind of Christ. 

The attitude of Christendom as a whole to the Moslem 
peoples is made up of the sentiment and attitude of a 
multitude of groups in Christendom. As typical, the 
attitude of diplomacy and commerce, the attitude of 
public opinion in general, and the missionary attitude 
of the Churches may be selected. Study of this composite 
attitude discloses the portentous fact that the attitude 
of Christian peoples to the peoples of Islam rests chiefly 
upon non-religious considerations, and that it is motivated 
by purposes which are not truly Christian. 

The attitude of diplomatic and commercial Christendom 
toward the peoples of Islam is based confessedly upon 
non-religious considerations. 

The political relationships existing between Christian 
Governments and their Moslem colonials, as well as be- 
tween themselves and the independent Moslem Powers, 
necessitate the adoption by them of diplomatic policies 
toward the Moslems. Commercial relationships follow 
diplomatic, and result, likewise, in the adoption of 
policies on the part of commercial men. Many nations 
of Western Christendom are involved in such relations. 
Foremost are England in Egypt and other parts of Africa 
and in India, and France in Africa and in Syria. Italy 
has Moslem dependents in North Africa, Spain in Morocco, 
Holland in the East Indies, and the United States in 
the Philippine Islands. Russia includes Moslem peoples 
in Western and Central Asia. These and still other 
nations seek favourable relationships with Turkey, with 


CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 115 


Persia, with the Arab States, and with Afghanistan. In 
these relationships the attitude assumed by diplomatic 
and commercial men is based usually and frankly upon 
self-interest. At its best, the self-interest seeks mutual 
welfare and is guided by mature judgment. The ac- 
tivities which result are not without advantage to the 
Moslem peoples, for the Christian Powers strive to main- 
tain peace and order and to advance civilization. But 
it is well understood that the Christian Powers expect 
to retain a paramount influence, making secure their 
own position, and leaving themselves free to execute any 
project which they consider expedient. 

In carrying out a policy based upon self-interest it is 
essential that the Christian Powers should adopt what- 
ever methods of dealing with the Moslem peoples may 
appear most advantageous, and this is true not only in 
general but specifically in view of the religious charac- 
teristics of these peoples. For Islam as a religion enters 
deeply into the lives of its adherents, giving them an 
undertone of religious feeling, a unity, and a sensitiveness 
that may not be disregarded. Therefore diplomatic 
wisdom and commercial prudence are always at pains 
so to act toward the Moslems as to forestall religious 
opposition, and the oscillations of public feeling are 
studied with great care. 

Unquestionably every Christian nation which bears 
responsibility for large numbers of Moslem colonials is 
compelled to face serious problems respecting them. 
Also, the most trifling incident may relate itself suddenly 
to a national or racial solidarity, which is rooted in turn 
in the international and interracial brotherhood of the 
world of Islam. Therefore the need is definite and 
urgent for the formulation by each of these nations of 
an adequate Islamic policy. Our present interest in 


116 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


these policies has to do only with the motives on which 
they may be based. And the significance of the fact 
cannot be overestimated that, in general, the political 
wisdom of Christendom, while recognizing the obligations 
of those who govern toward the governed, has ac- 
knowledged the determining factor in its treatment of 
the millions of the Moslem world to be self-interest. Add 
to this, also, the existence of urgent pressure from non- 
official quarters, demanding more intensive study of 
Moslem character, including its religious phases, in order 
thereby to facilitate political control of the Moslem 
peoples and their commercial exploitation. 

Two references will serve as illustrations of this pressure. 
Let it be remembered that the Governments mentioned 
are regarded by the world of Islam as leading repre- 
sentatives of the spirit and practice of Christendom. 

A comparatively recent book,! publication of which 
was not allowed during the war, summons the Govern- 
ments of France and Italy to the study of Islam as a 
religious movement, in order to take advantage of the 
religious psychology of the Moslems, and so gain greater 
power among them. It is declared that England already 
has adopted such a policy in its dealings with Egypt, 
and that the plans made for the re-Islamization of that 
country show the highest degree of political wisdom. 
A more recent article in the Revue du Monde Musul- 
man (1923) cites the success of German diplomacy in 
leading many of the Moslem peoples to see in Germany 
their only true friend among the Christian nations, a 
psychological asset of great political value. The article 
then asserts that this psychological propaganda has been 
continued by German commercial agents without abate- 


1 L’Islam et la Politique des Alliés, adapted from the Italian 
of Dr. Enrico Insabato. Paris, 1920. 


CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 117 


ment, producing a corresponding advantage for German 
trade. France should appreciate the immense prospec- 
tive volume of commerce with the Moslem peoples, and 
enter the same field. 

The attitude of public opinion in Christendom regarding 
the Moslem peoples rests, partly, upon knowledge of them, 
and, partly, upon current presuppositions. Both are 
chiefly non-religious. There is a growing popular 
literature regarding the peoples of Islam, and it is 
evident that Christians desire to learn more about the 
Moslems. 

This public opinion has no ulterior purpose as concerns 
the Moslem peoples beyond that of forming an honest 
judgment regarding them, and then alining itself 
accordingly upon public questions where they are in- 
volved. In attempting to do this, Christian public 
opinion fastens upon two classes of facts. One is the 
racial characteristics of some single Moslem nation. 
These characteristics are then transferred to all Moslems. 
The other is certain customs and characteristics which 
are supposed to mark every Moslem as a Moslem, Public 
opinion, for instance, has become confirmed regarding 
certain racial characteristics of the Turkish people, and 
these characteristics have coloured Christian imagination 
regarding all Moslems. But quite other racial traits 
distinguish the Arabs, the Malays, or the Chinese, who 
may be equally good Moslems. Or, a traveller reports 
some occurrence which has been observed by him in a 
Moslem land. The incident may have to do with poly- 
gamy, or slavery, or divorce, with observance of the 
hours of prayer or of the fast, with patient endurance of 
misfortune. A single event is generalized, and all 
Moslems are imagined to be like those described, while 
this may be far,from the fact. 


118 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


The substantial facts in view of which public opinion 
regarding the Moslems is formed are those regarding the 
degree of civilization in Moslem countries, the state of 
commerce and industries, the conditions of family and of 
social life, the administration of government, safety of 
life and property, the means of education, the honesty 
and morality of the people—facts other than those 
concerning religion. Religious considerations, however, 
are included, and there is a strong tendency to connect 
social conditions among the Moslems with the religion 
of the Moslems, as effect with cause. If the judgment 
of Moslem institutions is favourable, it may be accom- 
panied by the statement that the excellences of these 
institutions are due to Islam. If the judgment is the 
reverse, all evils among the Moslems may be looked 
upon as the direct fruits of Islam. Going a step further, 
public opinion then passes judgment upon Islam itself. 
Islam may be declared a religion well suited to the 
character and needs of its adherents, provided that they 
are sincere. Or Islam and its adherents may be placed 
under the severest anathemas. 

These various phases of public opinion are reflected 
constantly in the literature of Christendom. The most 
marked feature to-day is an increasing cleavage between 
those looking with toleration upon the Moslems and 
those looking with hostility. The former attitude is, 
in part, simply a reaction from extreme anti-Moslem © 
propaganda. The harsher judgment arises especially 
from sympathy with Oriental Christians who have 
suffered so terribly at the hands of the Turks. The more 
tolerant judgment often reflects sympathetic study of 
Moslem literature and institutions or personal acquaint- 
ance with Moslems of worth. In either case, a funda- 
mental understanding of Islam as a religion has little 


CHRISTENDOM AND MOSLEM WORLD 119 


share in shaping the final judgment. Yet the essence 
of Islam is religiousness. 

In so far as the missionary attitude of the Churches 
of Christendom rests upon a purely religious basis, it Wy 
finds this basis largely in the traditional ideas regarding 
Islam. These ideas had their source among the Oriental 
Christians of the early Moslem centuries, and were passed 
on by them to the Christians of Europe in the Middle 
Ages, from whom they have been transmitted to us. 
These ideas see in Islam a rival religion, late born, false 
in its claims and in its teachings, evil in its licence and 
in its commands, the religion of an invading enemy, 
hostile to Christendom and to Christianity. The issue 
of these ideas is a crusade of arms, as in the Middle 
Ages, or a crusade of ideas, an anti-Moslem propaganda. 
This latter is to demonstrate the superiority of Chris- 
tianity, to force Moslems to confession of their errors 
and to acceptance of the truth, and so to secure the down- 
fall of Islam. | 

In the minds of many earnest Christians, such a 
missionary programme is looked upon as natural and 
right. It is open, however, to serious criticism, trenchant 
and vital. For such a purpose ignores deliberately the 
best that there is in Islam, making no attempt to ascertain 
the religious truth which it may contain. Such a purpose 
is charged with feelings of Christian superiority, not 
with Christian sympathy. Such a purpose wills the 
destruction of a religious faith which others hold sacred. 
How can such a purpose relate itself to the purpose of 
Jesus, who came “not to destroy, but to fulfil’ the 
aspirations of the human heart in search of God, as 
truly as the premonitions of the Mosaic law ? 

This type of missionary effort has not met with great 
success, and the causes of its lack of success are inherent. ” 


120 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Had it succeeded, its success would have been as open 
to criticism as is the success of any Holy War. If 
spiritual success among the Moslem peoples is to be 
expected, the Christian missionary enterprise, in utter 
contrast to such a programme, must base itself upon 
sympathetic understanding of the religious life of Moslems, 
and upon loving service to them. 


PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM IN THE WORLD 
OF ISLAM 


BY THE REV. 
SAMUEL M. ZWEMER, D.D., LL.D., F.R.G.S., 
Editor, ** The Moslem Worla”’ 


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CHARTICN) EX 


PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM IN THE WORLD 
OF ISLAM 


“FLEET STREET may well envy the young Afghan 
editors,’ said The Times of London in a notice of the 
Afghan Press; ‘it is the golden age of journalism when 
a nation is beginning to think, and truth is as fresh as 
dew, and there is no bugbear of banality.”’ The present- 
day ubiquity, activity, enterprise, and enthusiasm of 
Moslem journalism have indeed created a new situation 
full of promise and a new mentality among the masses. 
Provincialism is on the wane even in the remote corners 
of the new world of Islam. Before me lies a Malay weekly 
published by Moslems in Borneo. On a single page there 
are: an article on Islam in America, another on the new 
mosque in Berlin, items regarding Aligarh College in 
India, nationalism in Bengal, and an advertisement of 
a Javanese Steamship Company that accommodates 
Borneo pilgrims going to Mecca if they will embark at 
Padang, Sumatra—a microcosm of interests. 

The Press is at once a proof of the unity and solidarity 
of Islam, and an infallible index to the surging currents 
of thought in a sea of unrest. Moslem journalism is a 
thermometer on which we may read the rising or falling 
temperature of the spirit of Islam; a barometer that 
records the approaching storm of suspicion and fanaticism 


or the “ set fair ’’ of tolerance and diplomatic adjustment. 
123 


124 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Some years ago Professor A. le Chatelier of Paris called 
attention to the fact that the Press was more important 
than the pilgrimage : 


‘Already the Press formulates the common thought 
between the Moslems of Mindanao and those of Ada- 
maoua ; between the Chinese Ahong and the Almamy 
Peul of Futa. The African Zawiya of Bir Alali in Kanem 
receives a newspaper from Irak, Arabia. The Cairo 
Moayyad circulates from Fez to Peking. 

“The Shurufa of Mecca formerly exercised a more 
extended authority than that of the Khalif. People 
came to fulfil their vows of pilgrimage from all corners 
of the world. Pilgrims from China and pilgrims from the 
Sudan: great Indian rajahs, Turkish viziers, Arabian 
emirs. They came to the holy city to build themselves 
up in living and deep faith against the contaminations 
of the world. The pilgrimage had the value of a great 
act of world-wide policy. To-day it retains only the 
merits of a respected act of devotion. The pilgrimage 
. by steamboat has introduced the great ensign of Cook 
and Co. into the religion of the Prophet. Although the 
Bedouins still form a religious barrier after their manner, 
by preventing European tourists from profiting by its 
agencies in accompanying their Moslem clients, the pil- 
grimage is not what it was. It has given up its political 
influence to the Press. One prays; one is exalted in 
making the round of the holy Kaaba; faith is revivified 
by the purity of the Ihram; one descends from Mina 
with firm resolutions against Satan the Accursed. But 
an article in the Moayyad, the Sabah, Habl-al-Matin, 
or even The Observer of Lahore has quickly replaced the 
Opinions conceived in the isolated metropolis of the 
Hejaz, by the latest news from Cairo or Stamboul.”’ 1 


The following brief survey of the periodical press in 
the world of Islam, its present-day character and ten- 


1 The Moslem World, 1911, p. 154. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 125 


dencies, confirms the judgment of le Chatelier, and may 
perhaps also justify the conclusions at the close of this 
paper. 

Because of the polyglot character and the wide sweep 
of Islam, it is convenient to follow geographical divisions 
in our treatment of the subject: 


I. THE EXTENT OF PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM 
1. Lurkey and Syna 

All journalism in Moslem lands is of comparatively 
recent date. The printing press was not introduced into 
Turkey until 1728. The very rumour of such an innova- 
tion spread alarm. Scribes saw that their profession 
would be imperilled; theologians thought the new 
project profane ; and scholars who cherished literature 
were disturbed lest the art of calligraphy should be lost. 
A fatwa secured from the Sheikh al-Islam, authorizing 
the use of the press, is typical. It read as follows: 


“ Question: If Zaid, who pretends to have ability in 
the art of printing, says that he can engrave on molds 
the figures of letters and words of books edited on 
language, logic, philosophy, astronomy, and _ similar 
secular subjects, and produce copies of such books by 
pressing the paper on the molds, is the practice of such a 
process of printing permissible to Zaid by canon law ? 
An opinion is asked on this matter. 

““ Answer : God knows it best. If a person who has 
ability in the art of printing engraves the letters and 
words of a corrected book correctly on a mold and pro- 
duces many copies without difficulty in a short time 
by pressing the paper on that mold, the abundance of 
books might cheapen the price and result in their in- 
creased purchase. This being a tremendous benefit, the 
matter is a highly laudable one. Permission should 
be granted to that person, but some learned persons 


126 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


should be appointed to correct the book the figures of 
which are to be engraved.”’ ! 


In Egypt, the Government began journalism. The 
first Arabic newspaper was published on November 20, 
1828, at Cairo; its title was Al Wagai al Misnya. It 
appeared in Turkish and Arabic. The next newspaper 
was published twenty-nine years later, January I, 1858, 
in Arabic-French under the title Hadikat al Akhbar, 
at Beirfit, Syria. In 1869 Al Bashir, an Arabic journal, 
appeared at Beirtit. In 1877 Butrus al Bustani, a 
Christian, published the first number of Lisan-ul-Hal. 
This became the leading newspaper, not only in Syria, 
but for the Near East. The American Mission began 
to publish a Christian newspaper and a magazine for 
children in 1880. After that date newspapers appeared 
in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. The growth of jour- 
nalism in Egypt may be judged from these facts: in 1892 
there were 40 newspapers ; in 1899, 167; in 1909, 144. 
There was comparative freedom of the Press in Egypt. 

So difficult, however, were conditions in the Ottoman 
Empire that no attempt was made until 1832 to publish 
a Turkish newspaper. In 1843 an Englishman, N. 
Churchill by name, established a Turkish weekly, devoted 
to foreign politics. The first non-official self-supporting 
newspaper appeared in 1860. It was entitled Terju- 
mani-A hval. 


‘““ The publication of this newspaper marked an epoch. 
It was the first utterance of the Modern School, and in 
twenty years it swept from the stage the crumbling 
débris of five centuries of Asiaticism.”’ * 


1 Ahmed Emin, The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured 
ay: its Press, New York, 1914, p. 23 
2 E. J. W. Gibb, A History af Ottoman Poetry, edited by 
Edward G. Browne, London, 1907, vol. v, p. 26. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 127 


The Press, however, continued weak. In August 
1877 one of the few Turkish newspapers expressed itself 
dissatisfied with the state of the Press, reminding its 
readers “‘ that the Press can not only cause the progress 
of a country, as often stated, but can also bring about 
its ruin and destruction, if managed by short-sighted 
and favour-seeking men.” In the Hamidian period 
(1876-1908), journalism suffered censorship and suspicion 
prevailed. In 1897 the Young Turks began to organize 
and to carry on their propaganda through the Press. 
Papers were published in Egypt, the Balkan States, 
France, and Switzerland. Most of them were short-lived, 
but they helped forward the movement toward liberty. 

In r89r the agitation against the Sultan became serious. 
Six daily newspapers, two political weeklies, and a 
military gazette appeared, but the reactionaries won out. 
Abdul Hamid’s dread of the Press so increased that he 
would not authorize the publication of a single new 
periodical. The censorship became more severe, with 
the result that the number of papers circulating in rgor 
was scarcely larger than that in 1873.1 

July 25, 1908, marked the revival of the Press, and the 
dawn of a new day. The censorship ceased. There 
was an outcry of joy. Copies of the Igdam, of which 
60,000 had been sold at one cent each, could not be 
obtained for less than forty cents in the afternoon.’ 
The number of publications, most of them of mushroom 
growth, was enormous. Not only newspapers, but 
monthly reviews of economics and sociology, popular 
magazines, papers advocating new liberty for woman- 
hood, and humorous publications appeared. Liberty, 


1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by its Press, 
Pp. 79. | 
2 Ibid., p. 87. 


128) THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


equality, and fraternity, however, were not yet given to 
editors. The new Government held the Press responsible 
for the revolutionary outbreak of April 13, 1909. Papers 
were suppressed, editors exiled or imprisoned. The 
animosity between the old and the new parties was 
extremely strong, and is reflected in their journalism. 
But the new triumphed. Turkey’s defeat in the Balkan 
War proved to be a moral victory for the liberty of the 
Press. The daily Sabah wrote, April 2, 1913: 


“Whatever the material losses of the war may have 
been, there can be no doubt about the moral benefits 
it brought about for us. It has created a new sort of 
self-realization, it has given a new direction to our 
national life, it has done away with the last barriers 
between us and modern progress. In short, our defeat 
means the final victory of modernism in Turkey.’ ! 


Political liberty was accompanied by a feminist move- 
ment, which found expression in such papers as The 
Women’s World, and critically discussed the evils of 
social life under Islam. Kecently one of the editors 
of this paper took a ride in a military aeroplane, scattering 
upon the assembled crowds feministic literature. She 
was afterwards lauded by the Press as a popular heroine 
and her portrait placed in the Military Museum.? | 

Religious liberty followed in the wake of political 
freedom. One newspaper published articles on such 
subjects as ““ Was Mohammed an Epileptic ? ’’ and “ War 
on Theologians.” In 1914 the number of Turkish news- 
papers and magazines in Constantinople was: six dailies, 
three humorous papers, five illustrated magazines, eleven 
publications for children, two publications for women, 
six religious journals, nine professional journals, five 


1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by its Press, 
p. 109. 2 Ibid., p. 110. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 129 


military journals, and eight scientific reviews. This 
does not include publications in non-Turkish languages. 
Other centres of the Press are Smyrna, Brusa, Konia, 
and Trebizond, each of which has its daily papers. The 
number in other provinces, published in Turkish and 
Arabic, is given as follows!: 


Turkish, Arabic. 
Adana 
Adrianople 
Aleppo 
Angora 
Baghdad . 
Basra 
Beirat 
Dardanelles 
Diarbekr . 
ErzerOm 
Hejaz (Mecca) 
Jerusalem 
Kastamani 
Kharput 
Mosil 
Sivas 
Syria 
Valve 
Yemen 


blots acl 


(Turkish and Arabic) 
15 


HE HRHRWWWwWwWHRRFWONnN RN OOAN UA 


The actual number of periodicals at the end of 1913 
in Turkey was 389. 


“The present-day achievements of the Turkish Press,”’ 
says Ahmed Emin, “the increasing specialization in 
review literature, the attainment of a nearly perfect 
equilibrium, and of possibilities for constructive work, 


1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by its Press, 
p. 118. 


10 


130 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


only after four or five years of contest, struggle, and 
agitation, must be highly surprising to everyone who 
knows the previous conditions and realizes that there 
was not even one self-supporting Turkish paper as late 
as 1860, and that the development of the Press between 
1876 and 1908 was coercively checked.” 1 


A list of journals published in Turkey after the revolu- 
tion ? includes no fewer than 800 publications in Turkish, 
French, Arabic, Italian, and other languages. A small 
percentage of these, however, are not Moslem. The 
Turkish Press to-day, under the new Angora Government, 
is represented at Constantinople by four reviews: Sebzl- 
ar-Reshad (a religious journal); Mahfil (devoted to 
mysticism); Ijtihad (positivist); and Yenr Majmoua 
(literary). Of the daily Press, the following newspapers 
are the more important: Igdam, Tanin, Tevhid-1-Efkiar, 
Ilert, Vagit, Peyam-l-Sabah (which was suppressed in 
1922), Vatan, and Aqsham. 

In 1924 there-appeared in Constantinople a new pro- 
gressive monthly Moslem periodical entitled Al Mthrab. 
It is in the Turkish language, and deals with religion, 
philosophy, and historical questions from the standpoint 
of reformed Islam. The editor of the magazine is a man 
of modern education and in touch with world movements. 

At the new capital, Angora, the Press is also active 
and is represented by the following papers: Hakim-i- 
Mellia, Yen-Gun, Yem-Turkiya, and Shehir. 


2. Egypt, Arabia, and Mesopotamia 


The number of Moslems who speak Arabic has been 
estimated at over 45,000,000. The Arabic Press, there- 


1 The Development of Modern Turkey as Measured by tis Press, 
Pp. 139. 
* Revue du Monde Musulman, 1909, pp. 97-139. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 181 


fore, is found not only in the great centres of Arabic 
learning, Cairo, Beirit, Damascus, Baghdad, and Mecca, 
but in nearly every great centre of the Moslem world 
and on its farthest border-marches. In Malta, for 
example, there are two Arabic papers, the first of which 
appeared as early as 1879; in Calcutta one appeared 
in 1924. The revolutionary and nationalistic activity 
of educated Moslems in the Near East, so often censored 
or suppressed at home, found expression among groups 
of Syrians and Egyptians abroad, who, as exiles, were ripe 
for propaganda purposes, to serve Pan-Islamism, to oppose 
the old Turkish régime, or to advocate Egyptian nation- 
alism. Some of these papers were published in Cyprus, 
others at Constantinople, in Switzerland, or in South 
America. Arabic papers have also from time to time 
appeared in Italy, France, London, Tiflis, New York, 
and Philadelphia. Although over 95 per cent. of the 
population in the Arabic-speaking world is illiterate, yet 
the influence of the Press from its inception has been 
more vital and far more widespread than in Turkish 
lands. Egypt and Syria have set the pace as pioneers. 
Of the Arabic Press one might say, “ Their line has gone 
out in all the earth, and their word to the end of the 
world.” The February 1914 number of Der Islam 
contained some interesting notes by R. Mielck upon a 
collection of Arabic newspapers and journals gathered 
by Count de Terrazzi and recently purchased in Beirtt 
for the Hamburg Kolonial Institut. This remarkable 
collection contained 474 specimen copies of daily news- 
papers, distributed as follows: Cairo 96, Alexandria 
28, the rest of Egypt and the Sudan 6, Beirtit 60, Jerusa- 
lem 5, Constantinople 16, Jaffa 3, Baghdad 33, Basra 
9, Tripoli (Syria) 9, Damascus 22, Hama and Homs 11, 
Lebanon 24, Aleppo 15, Latikia 3, the rest of Turkey 


182 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


13, Paris 12, Marseilles 1, London 4, Sardinia 1, Malta 
1, Leningrad 21, Algiers 6, Morocco 3, Tunis 26, Tripoli 
3, New York 12, Buenos Aires 5, Sado Paulo 8, Rio de 
Janeiro 3, Montreal 3, the rest of America 8, Zanzibar 2, 
Singapore 2. Also 239 journals distributed as follows: 
Cairo 121, Alexandria 24, the rest of Egypt 7, Beirtit 
34, Constantinople 1, Jaffa 1, Baghdad 4, Tripoli (Syria) 
3, Damascus 5, Hama and Homs 4, Lebanon 8, Aleppo 
2, the rest of Turkey 6, Marseilles 1, Algiers 1, Morocco 
I, Tunis 4, Lucknow 1, New York 5, Buenos Aires 3, 
Sao Paulo 2, Montreal 1. 

It is significant of the rapid development of the Arabic 
Press in Egypt that Hartmann, in 1898, gave the number 
of current newspapers and journals in that country as 
169. In the Terrazzi collection alone there are 282 
Egyptian papers; doubtless many others have started 
and failed within the intervening fifteen years. Such 
activity is the more remarkable when we remember 
that, in Egypt, strict censorship was exercised from 
1914-22, or rather since 1909, as the law of 1881 for 
the control of the Press was vigorously enforced under 
sir Eldon Gorst after a period of liberty under Lord 
Cromer.? 

Not counting ephemeral productions, about ninety 
periodicals are now published regularly in Egypt, of 
which about fifty-seven are in Arabic (these, with 
a few exceptions, are all Moslem-edited); there are 
twelve in French, four in English, four in Italian, 
eight in Greek, three in Armenian, one in Maltese, and 
one in Hebrew. On account of their appeal to a larger 
public, the daily newspapers naturally occupy the first 
place, with consequently a wider circulation. Before 


1 “The Press in Egypt,’ by Lady Drummond Hay, in The Near 
East, August 21, 1924. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 133 


the war the circulation of an Arabic newspaper rarely 
exceeded 20,000 copies, but now 40,000 is the figure 
reached by one daily, although the most popular paper 
in English has less than 6,000 circulation. 

The leading newspapers to-day are Al-Ahram, con- 
sistently supporting the Nationalist Movement; Al- 
Mokattam, until 1914 Anglophile and hostile to the 
Nationalist Movement; Al-Balagh, inspired by the 
Wafd (the extreme Nationalist so-called Delegation), 
and the policy of Zaghloul Pasha; Wadinnil, until the 
fall of. the Government resolutely but moderately 
Zaghloulist ; Al-Mahroussa, having changed its politics 
as often as its editors, now also Zaghloulist ; and Al- 
Akhbar, though systematically opposing all and every 
Government, favouring the Egyptian Nationalist Move- 
ment. AJ-Siassa, the organ of the Liberal-Constitutional 
Party, is anti-Zaghloulist.} 

The leading monthly periodical is Al Manar, founded 
by the celebrated Mohammed ‘Abdu, and continued 
after his death by his pupil and spiritual legatee, 
Rashid Ridha. Each number contains a section of 
a new commentary on the Koran, articles on social 
and moral reform, a question department, and book 
reviews. The magazine is ably edited, always polemic, 
and has a widespread, although rather limited, circu- 
lation. 

The Press of Egypt was victim throughout the whole 
war-period of intrigue, instigation, propagandism, cen- 
sorship, and suppression. The pulse of the Cairo Press 
quickly responded to that of the nationalists of India. 
It was sympathetic to Turkey, in spite of the censorship. 
But, had it not been for such censorship, the fanaticism 


1 “The Press in Egypt,”’ by Lady Drummond Hay, in The Near 
East, August 21, 1924. 


184 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


of the masses would have known no limit. Even a 
paper like Al-Ahaly often appeared with blank 
columns instead of text; nationalists tore up copies 
of the Mokattam from the hands of newsboys ; news- 
paper offices were attacked, and windows smashed ; 
other papers sold their birthright for a mess of 
pottage.? 

Arabia depends almost entirely on Cairo for news. 
Until very recently no paper or magazine was published 
by Moslems anywhere in the peninsula with the exception 
of meagre Turkish-Arabic Government bulletins at Basra 
and Baghdad. In 1916, Al Kzibla appeared, published 
at Mecca but, at first, printed in Cairo. Intended to 
represent the Arabs and their new kingdom, it was a 
political organ enthusiastically welcomed or violently 
opposed, according to the trust or distrust of the Hashi- 
mite lords of Mecca. With the Wahhabis under Ibn 
Saud occupying the Hejaz, the importance of Al Kibla 
has ceased for the present. 

In Mesopotamia, Baghdad has five journals, Mosul 
and Basra each two. The Press of Iraq is awakening. 
Al Mufid and Al Istiglal take sides in discussing the 
dangers or benefits of the Anglo-Iraq Treaty, in defending 
or attacking the new Ministry, and in pioneer effort at 
social reform. 


3. Africa 


The Barbary States were more tardy than Turkey. 
The first newspaper published in Tunis was in 1862, and 


1Cf. “The Native Press of Egypt,’’ The Egyptian Mail, 
October 1910, and ‘“‘ The Moslem Press and the War,” The 
Moslem World, 1915, Pp. 413-25. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 135 


the Press of Tunis has never been vigorous or important 
in its influence. We may mention, however, as a 
speciality, two Jewish-Arabic papers published in Hebrew 
script—Al Bustant and Al Muhatyr. The only daily 
published in the country is called Az Zoharah, edited by 
Abdur Rahman as Sanaldali. The Young Tunis Party, 
corresponding to the Young Turkish Party or the Nation- 
alist Party in Egypt, have an organ of their own called 
At Tunisie. This appears also in a French edition. 
Other papers are the Hadhini, Al Liwa, Ad Dhahak (a 
humorous paper, as the title indicates), the Murshid, 
Al Umma, and As Sawwab. Extracts from these papers 
appear in the Revue du Monde Musulman. 

Tripoli has only one or two Arabic newspapers, and 
these, until the Italian occupation, were the official organs 
of the Government. 

In Algeria there is a vigorous daily Press at Algiers, 
Oran, and Tlemsen. Morocco is the most backward 
in regard to journalism. In 1905 the first newspaper 
was published at Tangier. The only Arabic paper 
published at Fez (1922) is a small four-page sheet, entitled 
Akhbar Telegrafia (Telegraphic News). 

A monthly paper in Swahili appeared (1923) as a pioneer 
of the Press in that language. It is called Mambo Leo, 
the meaning of which is “ News To-day.’ Yet this 
small paper had a circulation of 7,500.1 

In South Africa there are one or two vernacular papers 
and a Gujarati-English paper, The Indian Views,’ con- 
ducted by Moslems. It has a circulation in South and 
East Africa. Madagascar has no distinctively Moslem 
Press. A French paper is published by Moslems at 
Mauritius. 


1 Central Africa (Universities’ Mission), September, 1923, p. 6. 
2 137 Grey Street, Durban. 


186 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


4. Persia 


Journalism in this country has been treated fully in 
a monograph by Professor E. G. Browne. Printing was 
introduced a century ago and the first newspaper appeared 
in 1851. Before the granting of the Constitution in 
1906, however, only three or four papers appeared and 
journalism was of no importance. The only periodicals 
of value were published outside of Persia at Constan- 
tinople, Cairo, London, and Calcutta.? The Calcutta 
Habl-ul-Matin appeared in 1893, the Thuraiya (Pleiades) 
in Cairo in 1898 and the Parwarish replaced it in rgoo. 
With the Revolution journalism sprang into frantic life 
led by the Suv-1-Isvafil (Resurrection Trumpet), Nasim- 
1-Shemal (Breeze of the North), and Nusawat (Equality). 

It would be a love’s labour lost to record the rise, 
decline, and fall of the hundreds of newspapers, magazines, 
and journals that vied with one another in proclaiming 
the new era of liberty and the new day of education and 
reform. The curious reader will find in Browne’s volume 
every detail, including a whole series of inimitable Persian 
political cartoons. He gives a list of all these earlier 
Persian papers to the number of 350.3 Since November 
I9Q15, 47 papers and magazines have appeared. Tehran 
heads the list with 18 papers ; Shiraz has seven ; Tabriz © 
and Resht four each, and Isfahan, Meshed, Kerman, 
Kermanshah, Khoi, Bushire, Herat, Kabul, and Jalalabad 
(the last three in Afghanistan) one or two each. But 
this list, published in Kawa,‘ a Persian newspaper printed 

1 The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia, Cambridge, 1914; 
also his later work, A History of Persian Literature in Modern 
Times, Cambridge, 1924. 

2 Edward Granville Browne, The Persian Revolution of r905~ 
Igo9, Cambridge, 1910, p. 242. 


3 Also the list in the Revue du Monde Musulman, December 
1909, p. 682. # No! 4, 1921: 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 137 


in Berlin, is not altogether complete. Among the more 
important literary magazines are: Avmaghan, Bahar, 
Furugh-1-Tarbiyat, Danish (Meshed), Mimat-u-Hayat, 
Firdausi, and Ivan Shahr (Berlin). 

According to recent information! many of the Com- 
munistic journals and those opposed to the new Govern- 
ment have been suppressed. Among the more important 
newspapers that remain are the following: Ivan, Itithad, 
Bamdade-Roshan, Jahane, Zehan, The last-named re- 
presents the feminist movement in Persia. 

The boldness of the Press and its Pan-Islamic tendency 
may be judged from the following editorial which appeared 
in Fakr-1-Azar (Free Thought), a semi-weekly paper, 
Meshed, Persia (October 9, 1922) : 


“We are dead. The spirit of the nation and the spirit 
of Islam has bidden farewell to the body of our national 
life. If it is not so, where are the signs of life? Where 
are there any evidences of the presence of the spirit of 
Islam ? When the good news came of the triumph of 
the victorious armies of Islam, where was our rejoicing ? 
Where our glorious celebrations ? Where is that assembly 
that sends a telegram of congratulations to our Moham- 
medan brothers in the name of Islamic feeling? What 
is the name of that party that invites their fellow country- 
men to have a part in the universal joy in the world of 
Islam ? 

‘“The Mussulmans of India, who are under the firm 
heel of the English, and have no share in the blessing of 
liberty, in this time of victory of the Kemalists have had 
a whole series of celebrations, and face to face with the 
partisans of Greece they have raised to heaven a shout 
of joy over her defeat and degradation. 

“Cries of congratulations and blessing are continually 
rising from the throats of the oppressed Mussulmans of 


1 Revue du Monde Musulman, 1922-3, p. 313. 


188 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Egypt, Mesopotamia, Morocco, Algiers, and elsewhere ; 
and make the hearts of the enemies of the Kzbla and the 
Koran tremble with fear and dread.” 1 


5. India, Ceylon, and Afghamstan 

The newspaper Press was introduced at the time of 
the British occupation of Bengal; yet at the time of 
the Mutiny there were only 19 Anglo-Indian papers and 
25 in the vernacular for the whole of India. To-day, 
among I,017 newspapers and 2,297 periodicals, the Moslem 
Press is represented by 222 periodicals and publications 
as follows: Madras Presidency, 26; Bombay Presi- 
dency, 37; the United Provinces, 44; the Central 
Provinces, 5; the Punjab, 84; Bengal, 24; Burma, 
1; Bihar and Orissa, 1. According to languages these 
Moslem periodicals are divided as follows: Urdu heads 
the list with 149 newspapers and magazines edited by 
Moslems; 25 appear in Gujarati, 14 in English, 13 in 
Bengali, 8 in Malayalam, 6 in Sindhi, 4 in Tamil, and 
t in Arabic. 

In Bengal the leading vernacular periodical is an 
illustrated monthly called Al Islam, of about seventy 
pages. A recent number contained articles on “ The 
Canon of the Old Testament,’’ ‘“ The Mohammedans in ~ 
China,” “ The Library of Alexandria,’ and “ Islam and 
the Race Problem.”” The Muhammad: is a weekly, 
often violently anti-Christian. This has a large circu- 
lation.” 

India has several important Mohammedan papers 
published in the English language. The Review of 
Religions, published at Qadian, represents the original 

1 The Moslem World, 1923, p. 411 


2“ The Moslem Press of Bengal, ” by William Goldsack, 
The Moslem World, 1917, p. 182. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 139 


Ahmadiya Movement, but has lost its old-time vigour. 
It has, however, a wide circulation outside of India. 
A recent number contained a list of contributors from 
Lagos, West Africa, to the building of the new mosque 
at Berlin. The Comrade, of Calcutta, was the leading 
English Moslem weekly until it was suppressed during 
the war. The Muslim Outlook is a daily published at 
Lahore, and The Moslem Chronicle appears at Madras. 
The influence of the Indian Press may be judged from 
the little magazine called Peace published in Dacca, 
which often speaks of Islamic solidarity in terms that 
would appear an exaggeration were it not that we find 
in the same paper a list of 19 Moslem magazines, ex- 
changes which the editor receives. These magazines 
are published not only in India, but in South Africa, 
United States, Java, France, and England. Whatever 
else one may say about. the Ahmadiyas of India, they 
are active. One of their latest methods of propaganda 
is found in The Light, a bi-weekly four-page journal 
published in English (Lahore). The editor is Mustafa 
Khan, B.A. 


“The paper desires to disseminate Islamic doctrines, 
and to repudiate charges against Islam. Short articles, 
letters, and questions will also be welcome. Non- 
Moslems are also invited to send questions to be answered.”’ 


A list of the subjects treated in the number of August 
16, 1924, will convey a fairly satisfactory idea of its 


character: ‘‘ The Position of Christianity ”’ ; “‘ Islam and 
Christianity in Africa’’; ‘“‘ Moslem Mission in Ger- 
many”; ‘‘ The Atonement ’’; ‘‘ A Study of the Bible.”’ 


The last page is devoted to questions and answers. 
The Islamic World (Lahore) is a new quarterly journal 
“devoted to propagate and defend Islam against its 


140 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


hostile critics and to study the progress of Islamic thought, 
literature, art, and civilization in the world.” 

A complete list of all the Moslem newspapers published 
in India and Ceylon is given in an appendix. 

The first Moslem journal published in Afghanistan 
appeared at Kabul in 1906. Under the progressive 
Amir Amanullah, Afghanistan is arousing herself from 
her sleep, and the two nationalist journals, the Aman-t- 
Afghan, of Kabul (1919), and the Ittihad-1-Mashraqi 
(Eastern Unity) (1920) of Jalalabad, aim at reflecting 
the national enlightenment. Both journals are published 
in Persian, and claim to be unofficial, though the inspira- 
tion and control of the Amir’s Government are obvious, 
as is the Bolshevist hand behind it. Subscription to 
the Aman-i-Afghan is obligatory upon officials of a 
certain grade, and is deducted by the Royal Office from 
their salaries. 

At one time Indian Moslems published a monthly in 
Tokyo, Japan, in the English language. It was entitled 
The Islamic Fraternity. The first number appeared 
April 15, 1910, but it was soon discontinued ; the editors 
were an Indian and an Egyptian Moslem. Islam has 
never gained a foothold in Japan, but this effort at 
propagandism is nevertheless suggestive. There is a 
small group of Indian Moslem students in Tokyo and also 
there are Moslem merchants in Yokohama and Kobe. 


6. Dutch East Indies and Malaysia 


The importance of the Netherlands Indies is evident 
when we remember its vast population—49,350,834 
souls,—the present revival of Islam, and the increasing 
contacts between Insulinde and the Near East. Al- 
though the percentage of illiteracy is still high, it is de- 
creasing. The number of literates in Java alone is 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 141 


estimated at over two million. The chief languages are 
Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese. Various 
Moslem societies exist for the revival of religion or of 
nationalism on social and economic lines. All of these 
live by the Press. The Sarikat-Islam, the Boedi-Oetomo, 
and the Moehammadia are the best known, but there 
are many others. The centres of publication are at 
Surabaya and Batavia, but at many holy places and pil- 
grim rendezvous there is also considerable activity. 
Gressee and Demak are examples. A complete list of 
native newspapers and periodicals, secured from the 
Department of the Interior, gives the following Moslem 
papers and periodicals: Java newspapers, 8; Sumatra 
and other islands newspapers, 10; periodicals, Java, 
24; periodicals in the outposts, 12; Moslem religious 
papers, 5; Arabic newspapers, 3. The titles of some 
of these periodicals are significant: Light of Sumatra, 
Young Java, Young Sumatra, Light of India, Light of 
Minahassa, Light of Islam, The Revival of Islam, Agree- 
ment and Disagreement, The Area of Islam, etc. Their 
variety and number, in a time of commercial depression 
and general crisis, are surely a proof that Islam is awake. 
Of the total, 16 are published at Weltevreden, Batavia, 
ro each at Semarang and Padang, 9 at Jokyakarta, 7 
at Solo, 5 each at Bandung, Surabaya, and Medan; the 
others are scattered. Some of the papers are frankly 
reactionary and advocate a return to the old Islam, 
but the majority are progressive and desire reform, 
educational and ethical. The contents of a single 
number 1 of the Tyahaja-Islam are typical. This paper 
is a diglot in Malay-Javanese. The advertisements, 
with one exception, relate to Moslem schools, book- 
sellers, and eating-houses. After an editorial (which 
1 Issue of November 5, 1921. 


142 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


closes with a threefold Amen), the leading article is on 
the Birthday of Mohammed. A second long article is 
on Islam and Democracy. Then follow an appeal for 
money to open a new Moslem school, a poem calling for 
the better observance of the five prayer periods, a proposal 
to unify the Moslem Press, and a reply by the editor, 
who says that three small papers reach a larger circle 
than one large one! The Javanese section has similar 
matter, and in addition a Koran exposition with reference 
to Thomas Carlyle’s Essay on Mohammed. 

Apart from a score of Chinese political newspapers 
and six Christian periodicals, there are over 90 news- 
papers and other periodicals which are Islamic in their 
outlook and influence, for even a general daily, under 
the control of a Moslem editor or committee, cannot help 
being an organ of propagandism.? 

The Dutch East Indies are undergoing rapid evolution. 
The daily Press proclaims it in unmistakable accents. 
Processes which in Europe took long centuries are here 
taking place in a decade. In Sumatra you may see, side 
by side, the use of a needle fashioned from a thorn and 
a Singer sewing-machine ; the smoking wool-wick and the 
electric bulb; the untrodden forest and the Ford car, 
with a Battak chauffeur whose grandfather was a canni- 
bal! Single generations are separated by unbridgeable 
gulfs mental and spiritual, and in the new day of light, 
liberty, and more abundant life the Press is to the 
front as pioneer and cynosure. 

A survey of the contents of the Press in the Dutch East 
Indies is regularly published by the Dutch Colonial 
Government. This is also done, from the missionary 
standpoint, by Dr. H. Kraemer from time to time in the 
magazine called De Opwekker, and also in Mededeelingen. 

1 For complete list see The Moslem World, 1923, pp. 39-49. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 143 


7. China 


Although the Chinese people had newspapers before 
the discovery of printing in Europe, a Moslem Press did 
not exist until very recent years. At the time of our 
visit in 1917 we found only three or four Chinese-Mo- 
hammedan newspapers or magazines. A Chinese-Arabic 
periodical was then issued at Peking, but has been dis- 
continued. 

The Islamitic Review is a Chinese-Moslem newspaper, 
published in Yiin-nan-fu, West China. A recent article 
therein, received from Peking, gives a view of Chinese 
Mohammedanism to-day : 


“This is respectfully addressed to our .. . brethren 
of Islam. Do not slumber, all of you! Quickly awake ! 
At the present time this Moslem religion of ours has in 
failure reached the extreme point; it appears that we 
are about to perish. O brethren of our Faith, all of 
you, make haste to think of some plan of remedy and 
rescue ; otherwise, when our Moslem religion perishes, 
probably we shall not be able to preserve our places of 
worship and ablutions.... 

‘Brethren of our Faith, do not continue besotted 
in sleep! Up quickly, and save our religion! Look 
around at the present deplorable condition of our re- 
ligion; it is day by day becoming more and more 
decadent.” 1 


From India we learn of a new International Moslem 
Association (Shanghai) which has started a monthly 
journal, The Light of Islam, in Chinese, with some English 
and Japanese articles as well. 


‘a The principal object of this journal being to 
awaken the slumbering Chinese Muslims and acquaint 
them with the activities now widely spreading among 


1 Isaac Mason, in The Moslem World, 1923, Pp. 413. 


144 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


their fellow disciples in the Western countries, and, on 
the other hand, to teach and propagate the Sacred 
Doctrines of Islam among the Chinese and the Japanese 
who are ignorant of them... and to stimulate and 
encourage our fellow Muslims of the Far East to form a 
close connexion with those of other parts of the world, 
so that we may ultimately establish a world-wide Asso- 
ciation of pan-Islamism.”’ 1 


The journal contains articles in Chinese, and many 
illustrations of Moslem leaders and the antiquities in 
China. 


8. Russia 


Here the chief centres of journalism are Bakhchisarai, 
Kazan, Baku, Orenburg, and Leningrad. Kazan, where 
several hundred books are published every year, is the 
educational and intellectual capital for the 17,000,000 
Moslems under Russian governments. Ufa is the head- 
quarters of the Mohammedan ecclesiastical Assembly. 
Orenburg, Tiflis, and Troitsk are also important. 

Kazan has 6 Moslem newspapers, Tashkent 5, Ash- 
qabad 3, Khoqand and Samarkand each 1. At Bukhara 
the Moslem Press is also fairly active in the Arabic, 
Persian, and Turki languages. Altogether about fifty 
Islamic newspapers have appeared in Russia.? 

The most important, and one of the earliest Moslem 
journals, was the weekly paper entitled Millet, under the — 
editorship of Ismail Bey Gasprinsky, the leader of educa 
tion and reform. Another pioneer of the Press in Russia 
was Ahmad Bey Agayeff. 

In the Crimea there is an important newspaper called 
Larjaman, and published at Bakhchisarai, with a circula- 


1 The Muslim Herald (Madras), November 29, 1924. 
* Hartmann, in Encyclopedia of Islam. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 145 


tion of over 5,000. It first appeared in 1879, also under 
the editorship of Ismail Bey Gasprinsky, but is now 
conducted by Jaafer Seyid Amet. In the Russian 
periodical Mir Islama (The Islamic World) reviews of 
the Moslem Press appear from time to time.! 

In the Caucasus the Moslem Press has its chief centre 
at Baku. 

In this connexion we may note that Islam in Bulgaria 
has, as its chief centres of literary activity : Varna, Ras- 
grad, Ruschuk, Shumla, Sofia, Philippopolis, and Burgas. 
At the present time the following Turkish papers are 
published there: Echali, Zia, Trundscha, and Muwazene. 


9g. Europe, America, and Australia 


Moslem journalism has entered the Western World. 
The earliest magazine, which has continued publication, 
is The Islamic Review, published by the Ahmadiya Move- 
ment at Woking, England ; a Tamil edition appears at 
Madras, India, and an Urdu edition at Lahore. At 
Berlin a new Mohammedan magazine, called Al Liwa, 
appears in three languages, Persian, Arabic, and German. 
It gives a large amount of space to news regarding 
Central Asian politics and Bolshevism. A more recent 
publication, also issued at Berlin, is entitled Moslemische 
Revue, of which Vol. I, No. 1 appeared in April 1924. 
Three Islamic papers are published in France. In the 
bi-monthly organ published by the Bureau d’Information 
Islamique at Paris (24 Rue Taitbout), and entitled 
Echos de l’ Islam, we find political news and propagandism 
in favour of Pan-Islam. This magazine circulates in 
Java and the Malay States. 

There are one or two Mohammedan newspapers 


1 Mir Islama, 1912, pp. 257-87. 
11 


146 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


published in Brazil, the Argentine, and British Guiana ; 
none in Trinidad. Five Syrian Arabic dailies are pub- 
lished in the United States of America, and three maga- 
zines. These are not all Moslem ; yet the Arabic Press 
has a larger proportionate daily circulation than the 
Chinese, Greek, or Yiddish newspapers. The number 
of Arabic papers, beginning with 1 (1893-8), rose to 7 
in rg1r, and to 13 in 1917. It has since decreased. Al 
Hoda was established in 1898 as spokesman of Maronite 
Syrians. It is pro-Zionist. The Kowkab America was 
the first Arabic paper published. It was controlled by 
Turkish influence and fear of the Turkish Government. 
“ The hand of the Turk was still heavy on me,’ says 
the editor, ‘‘ even on Pearl Street, New York.’’ 

Some of the magazines and papers referred to, however, 
although published in Arabic and read by Moslems, are 
edited by Christians. The first magazine published by 
Moslems in the English language in the United States 
of America bears the title of The Moslem Sunrise. This 
quarterly represents the Ahmadiya Movement. Its 
first number contained a new year greeting, a prayer for 
all its readers, followed by a transliteration and transla- 
tion of Sura 31 : 13-20, the thirteen Commandments of 
Luqman to his son. There follow some sayings of Mo- 
hammed. An Australian Moslem tells how “ prohibi- 
tion is prohibited” in the United States. In the course 
of this article Jesus Christ is spoken of not only as a 
““wine-drinker’’ but also as a ‘“‘ wine-maker.” The 
magazine has a large circulation outside of the United 
States. On the inside cover a list of its agents abroad is 
printed, and in a recent issue two pages are devoted to 
lists of converts made in the United States. 


1 Robert E. Park, The Immigrant Press and its Control, New 
York and London, 1922, p. 56, 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 147 


For some time a similar publication, entitled The 
Moslem Sunshine, appeared at Perth, Australia. 


II. THE CHARACTER OF PRESENT-DAY JOURNALISM 


After our geographical survey of the Press in the new 
world of Islam, it remains to sketch briefly its character, 
its outlook, and programme. 

First of all, and everywhere, it looks forward. Eco- 
nomic, social, intellectual, and spiritual movements are 
stirring thought everywhere, although the currents often 
run counter to one another and with terrific force. 
Zionism, Bolshevism, commercialism, nationalism, im- 
perialism, all have interests centring in the undeveloped 
Moslem Near East, and each is a disintegrating factor in 
the old world of thought and life. No wonder Turkey is 
turning her back on the past and trampling on old 
traditions. The cry of the reactionary is, “‘ Back to the 
Koran and to Mohammed !”’ The problem of the progres- 
sive Press is to get as far away from both as is decent and 
safe. The educational revival, the renaissance of Arabic 
as a world-language, the Feminist Movement—all are 
topics for Moslem journalists to-day. The shattering 
impact of the World War, race hatreds, the fall of the 
Caliphate, the increased government.of Islamic peoples by 
European Powers, the impact of civilization and of 
missions, European scepticism, the rebellion against 
traditionalism and external authority, the hunger for 
knowledge of new scientific thought and invention, the 
canvassing of the status of Oriental womanhood—all 
yield the furor scribendi to the Moslem editors. 

In Tunis, Turkey, Syria, and Egypt the Press has been 
furiously discussing polygamy, its prevalence, and its 
agreement or disagreement with Moslem ethics. One 


/ 


148 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


paper states that only 50 per cent. of the Egyptians 
are polygamists! Another newspaper suggests the 
promulgation of a law against polygamy on lines following 
the precepts of the Koran, which require the husband 
to support his wives without discrimination ; and sug- 
gests that this law should make it compulsory for the 
husband to give evidence, before a second marriage, 
that he is able to support more wives than one, 

In commenting on the Feminist Movement in Egypt, 
Al Kibla, the semi-official organ of the Hejaz Govern- Y 
ment, expresses indignation at the publication of a 
portrait of Madame Zaghloul, in which she is seen unveiled 
and seated among European and Egyptian men. Al 
Kibla also criticizes Mustafa Kemal for allowing his 
wife to accompany him on a military parade unveiled 
and riding a horse. The article concludes by warning 
Moslems not to violate Sharia, which forbids Moslem 
women to show themselves unveiled except to their 
husbands. 

In the second place, Moslem journalism is religious— v 
that is, it cannot get away from Islam. It challenges 
Lord Cromer’s verdict that reformed Islam is Islam no 
longer. The new wine is always put into the old wine- 
skins. Thus, according to the Moslem Press, the Koran 
has become “‘holy’’; Mohammed never conducted 
aggressive warfare ; he was practically a monogamist, 
and inculcated tolerance. Likewise, the Bible yields 
proof-texts to establish the doctrines of Islam ; Western 
civilization and Christianity are submitted to its acid 
test. On December 24, 1920, a Cairo daily (Al-Ahaly) 
wrote : 

‘‘ How curious and strange is the nature of man! To- 
morrow Westerners will celebrate Christmas Day, the 
day when forbearance was born with the birth of Jesus, 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 149 


when the mercy of heaven came down to earth as He 
came to it, and when the good news was heralded to all 
that fraternity, love, and peace had come. One may 
imagine, as one casts a look on them while they celebrate 
this blessed day, and exchange good wishes and greetings 
on its occasion, that the principles of Christ are still in 
the hearts of His peoples, and that His generous com- 
mandments are strictly obeyed by these peoples ; whereas, 
if one looks well, one clearly sees that they are in one 
valley, and the principles of Christ in another. 

‘““ Injustice is up and justice is down; slavery is per- 
manent; the mighty continue to consume the rights 
of the weak, and without feeling any remorse; the 
influential trespass upon the humble, without feeling 
any shame; the wealthy, who only care to fill their safes 
with money, look as if they would suck up the blood 
of the poor without feeling any pain in their hearts.” 


On the other hand, the Press often speaks in terms of 
the highest praise of Jesus Christ. On Christmas Day, 
1921, Al Ivag, Baghdad, had an editorial beginning : 


“On the morning of December 25, nineteen hundred 
and twenty-one years ago, the ray that leads to the right 
path appeared in Bethlehem as a bright star, and His 
light spread over the East and the West. On that 
day was born the Image of Love and the Great Child. 

“He spent His days calling people to the Truth and 
guiding them to the right path. He was a good shep- 
herd who sheltered His sheep and defended them against 
the wolves. He was pure of heart, and His hidden 
thoughts were clear. He was humble, like a blessed 
ear full of wheat-grains, and that in an age when error 
had a universal rule, and when the wolves longed to be 
ferocious lions so as to enslave others. Man’s inner- 
most thoughts had been covered with a tissue, the warp 
and woof of which were pride and arrogance. 

“ All His life He was loved by the poor and the good, 
and was shunned by the arrogant and the proud. He 


150 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


showed love to the poor and to the weary, and revolted 
against the tyrants and oppressors. He devoted His 
life to the assistance of humanity, which was suffering 
from persecution, colonization, and that warfare which 
man wages against his brother. 

““ Neither the greatness of the Caesars nor the sophistry 
of the priests could turn Him away from His purpose, 
for how can perishable greatness and apostate priest- 
hood wrestle with immortal glory ? 

“The greatness of Cesar has passed away, the Nero’s 
page in history is,a dark one ; but time has failed to efface 
the greatness of the Apostle of Love, and His page in 
history remains white, with no spots on it.” 


A small section of the Moslem Press (especially the 
Ahmadiya) uses the arguments of liberal Christianity and 
Western infidelity to combat the Scriptures and Christian 
missions. The sinlessness of Jesus is assailed, His 
virgin birth ridiculed, His death, resurrection, and 
ascension caricatured. Paul invented the Christianity 
of the Churches ; Jesus was a true Moslem. Al Manar, 
Cairo, recently gave an account of the Modern Church- 
men’s Conference held in Cambridge, August 1921, 
and maintained : 

“|, . That the thinking clergy of England and America 
have been approaching almost automatically the theo- 
logical position of the Unity of God, so that there has 
been no need, as in the days of old, for Islam to resort 
to the sword and the battle.... And so, of course, the 
day is not far distant when idols will be demolished and 
churches razed, while true piles will be erected to the 
worship of Amighty Unity in accordance with the laws 
of Mohammed, the master of men.” 


Vituperation of Christian missions and of certain 
Christian doctrines is still found in some religious perio- 


1 Cf. ‘‘ A Moslem View of Christianity,’’ by Samuel M. Zwemer, 
in The Missionary Review of the World, November 1924. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 151 


dicals of India and Egypt, but it is far less common than 
a decade ago. 

Some editors proclaim an Islamic renaissance, and 
others sound its death-knell. It depends on tempera- 
ment and temperature. What a contrast between the 
voice of The Crescent, Colombo, and that of The Islamic 
Review, Woking, almost of the same date! The former 
draws this roseate picture : 


“The Islamic world seems to be on the threshold of 
a great renaissance. For long, mysterious murmurs, 
presages of a coming revolution, have been echoing 
from the colourful cafés of Stamboul through the vaulted 
halls of Al Azhar and of Aligarh to more Eastern climes 
where the followers of the Prophet congregate into 
Brotherhoods of Purity. Under the impact of Western 
civilization, the East is slowly awakening to a conscious- 
ness of its own soul, and the time cannot be far distant 
when it shall once more resume its own self-appointed 
search for the Holy Grail, with something of the high, 
ancient earnestness that brought forth religions and 
philosophies and stayed the flight of time.” 


But The Woking Monthly, quoting from a mosque 
sermon at Woking, said : 


‘“ There has been many a dark hour in the history of 
Islam, but never any so dark as the present. We, the 
present-day Moslems, have indeed fallen on evil days. 
Our past glory has forsaken us. Our might, our honour, 
have deserted us. To our rivals, our days are already 
numbered. It is true that, to a certain extent, we have 
awakened and realized the critical nature of the situation 
in which we find ourselves ; but, likeaman who has been 
enjoying a deep slumber and is awakened, all of a sudden, 
by some turmoil around him, we are rushing about in 
utter darkness to avoid what we perceive to be an 
imminent danger. Confusion has seized our senses ; 


152 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


and, though the danger is within our purview, yet we 
cannot properly locate it. Death is staring us in the 
face, and the struggle for self-preservation has just 
begun.”’ 


While this call for social and religious reform occupies 
so large a place in present-day journalism, we note an 
alarming feature. According to Joseph Castagné, the 
Russian Soviet has obtained control of some of the leading 
Russian Moslem newspapers, and since 1921 has been 
engaged in a systematic effort to make Islam the ally of 
Bolshevism, not only in Russia, but also in all Central - 
Asia. Two Usbek journals, Ingilab (Revolution) and 
Kyzyl Batrak (The Red Flag), both published at Tashkent 
under Mohammedan editors, preach Communism to all 
Turkistan. The last-named paper appears in Tatar, 
Kirghize, and Russian, as well as in the Usbek language, 
and the total circulation in these four languages is over 
37,000.1 

In Java the Russian Soviet has its secret agents and 
succeeded once and again in winning over certain leaders 
of the Sarikat-Islam and their Press to the Third Inter- 
national programme.’ 

In Persia Soviet propaganda has been active in the 
Moslem Press since the appointment of a Bolshevik 
Minister at Tehran in 1921. At Resht a Communist 
paper called The Red Revolution is distributed gratuitously. 
Georges Ducrocq mentions many other Bolshevist- 
Moslem journals, such as Hallaj, Badr, Toufan (The 
Deluge), etc.2 Some of these were ephemeral and others 
were suppressed, but the Soviet influence continues in 

1 Joseph Castagné, “‘ Le Bolshevisme et l’Islam,’’ in Revue du 
Monde Musulman, October 1922, pp. 68-73. 


* Idem, December 1922, pp. 70-81. 
8 Ibid., pp. 127-33. 


JOURNALISM IN ISLAM 153 


the Persian Press. Two Turkish papers are also men- 
tioned, Yemi-Dunya (Baku), edited by a follower of 
Karl Marx, and Yemi-Hayat (Angora), a Communist 
journal. Strict censorship and government precautions 
have hitherto prevented an alliance of Bolshevism with 
Islam in the Press of India and Egypt.’ 

In conclusion, we emphasize the importance of 
modern journalism in moulding not only everyday 
thought but the language and literature of nations. 
The newspaper has freed the Arabic language from 
much of its old bombastic and affected style, has 
adopted or invented new words, and broken through 
religious prejudices by its illustrations and advertise- 
ments. 

Literature itself has entered upon a new career of 
beauty and power by the fructifying mind of great races 
awakened by modern science, art, and culture in the 
Press. 

Poetry and the fine arts, history, archeology, and the 
natural sciences are coming to their own in modern Moslem 
journalism. The child has a larger place than in the 
old world of Islam. Womanhood has secured a forum | 
and popular education its great advocate in the daily 
newspaper. In many reforms—for example, the Prohibi- 
tion Movement-——the Moslem Press is an ally of Christian 
missions. It is, therefore, increasingly important to 
make a careful and sympathetic study of the contents 
of the daily papers and periodicals. We must cultivate 
friendly relationships with the large and influential 
body of editors and journalists. They are the leaders 
of the leaders, and control the thought of the masses. 


1 Joseph Castagné, “‘ Le Bolshevisme et l’Islam,’’ in Revue du 
Monde Musulman, December 1922, pp. 207-10. 


2 [bid., pp. 218-21. 


154 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Of present-day journalism in the new world of Islam 
the words of Kipling are also true: 


“The Pope may launch his Interdict, — 

The Union its decree, 

But the bubble is blown and the bubble is pricked 
By Us and such as We. 

Remember the battle and stand aside 
While Thrones and Powers confess 

That King over all the children of pride 
Is the Press—the Press—the Press !’’ 


SOME TYPES OF LITERATURE IN THE 
WORLD OF ISLAM 


BY 
CONSTANCE E. PADWICK, 
Church Missionary Society, Catro 





CHAPTER X 


SOME TYPES OF LITERATURE IN THE WORLD 
OF ISLAM 


In Amman, the Arab capital of Trans-Jordan, one can 
never forget the Arabian desert where the heart of Islam 
beats. The little city lies in a cleft made by the Jabbok 
through the breezy Moab uplands, and these bare pas- 
tures are an ill-defined barrier between the settled 
pastures of Palestine and that untamed desert. Three 
miles away the railway, with uncontrollable passengers 
who travel on the roof if they feel so minded, makes a 
tangible link between Amman and the Hejaz itself. 
The greater houses have ladies or slaves from Mecca 
or Medina. In the market street, full of flashes of gold 
and orange head-draperies, tawny figures talk the 
purest language-of-the-desert Arabic as they watch the 
mending of harness or the making of a pair of yellow 
boots under personal supervision. There, in the Amman 
market, the desert man finds links with the outside 
world. The train that goes to Ma’an comes from 
Damascus with gossip of the French official world. It 
takes up a load from Haifa with cheap clocks, cheap 
crockery, tin toys, and even sweetstuff made in Europe. 
The rudimentary brown road (mended last summer by 
prisoners who were Wahhabi warriors raiding from Nejd) 
takes cars to Jerusalem with its tourists and the daily 
train for Egypt. 
157 


158 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


That market street of gunsmiths, camel-harness 
makers, and cafés is not a literary centre, and what books 
are sold there are sold in a luxury-shop along with cheap 
mirrors, tin trains, masks, bottles of scent, and slabs 
of unutterably stale chocolate. Yet, when books are 
rare, each one read counts the more, and, after inquiry 
as to where books were sold in the capital, I stood among 
the dusty rattle-traps and had the pile of literature 
pulled down, that I might finger it and see what that 
corner of the Moslem world was reading, when it read 
at all. 

The Korans were left on the shelf. The shopman 
explained that it would have been counted a shameful 
deed in the Amman market to offer one to me, a Christian 
woman; and I could but agree to the deprivation, 
though I should have liked to see whether the presses 
of Stamboul or of Cairo were supplying that part of the 
Arab world. The pile of books before me was quickly 
classified. There were a few grubby linguistic works 
on the Arabic language, with instructions for writing 
letters in good Arabic style, and flowery examples of 
figures of speech. These came to Amman from Damascus, 
that home of Arabic belles-lettres. There was a little, 
a very little poetry—true poetry of the desert from the 
days before Mohammed, songs of one ‘Antar, son of a 
warrior of Nejd by a black slave-girl, his spoil of war. 
‘Antar, so the books say, spent his youth as a camel-herd 
among slaves, and only forced his way to his father’s 
recognition by deeds of daring in a tribal war. His 
sixth-century poems are fierce songs of desert loves and 
desert raids that have an antique flavour when read 
among the electric trams of Cairo, but do not read as 
out of date among the Arabs in the Amman market. 
These were printed in Beirit. But the greater part of 


LITERATURE IN ISLAM 159 


the pile before me was made of stories in leaflet form. 
Right well I recognized them, with their poor paper and 
their poorer type. They were the same stories of crime 
and venture that are sold for a cent or two at the tram 
terminus of Cairo; poor in language, very poor in 
thought ; grubby enough sometimes in morals as in 
exterior; but stories, and therefore beloved on the desert 
borders as in the public gardens or the tramcars of 
Cairo. 

Damascus, Beirfiit, and Cairo had thus contributed to 
the spiritual culture of Amman; but perhaps the most 
significant contribution came from Stamboul. I grew 
insistent that there must be some books concerned with 
higher things, and, under pressure and secretly, another 
little pile was revealed tome. A Syrian friend barricaded 
it with his body from the public view while the infidel 
woman turned over the pages of a specially blessed book. 
It was a prayer-manual compiled by a sheikh who died 
some three hundred years ago and was buried at Mecca, 
as his book does not fail to state. His Arabic work, 
with a few Turkish marginal notes as introduction, is 
a book of those devotions wherein lies the religious 
strength of Islam. There are directions to the worshipper 
as to the times at which the prayers are most beneficial, 
and the ritual and number of repetitions, with ejacula- 
tions, and the benefits to be obtained from blessing the 
name of the Prophet. There are the ninety and nine 
names of Allah, and the two hundred and one names of 
Mohammed for devout repetition. There are litanies 
of obsecration : 

“I pray to Thee by the greatness and majesty and 
glory and power and might which Thy Throne upholds. 


“T pray to Thee by the power of Thy guarded secret 
Names which none of Thy creatures know. 


160 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


‘TI pray to Thee by the power of the Name which 
Thou didst lay upon the night and it darkened, and upon 
the day and it was called forth. . 

“TI pray to Thee by Thy great ‘and Greatest Name by 
which Thou hast called Thyself. . 

‘““T pray to Thee by the Names by which Thou hast 
called Moses, upon whom be peace. 

‘“T pray to Thee by the Names by which Thou hast 
called Aaron, upon whom be peace. .. .” 


So it runs on, full of the ancient sense of the magic 
power of a Name, and full of pieties, for this is a book of 
personal devotions in the singular number, just such a 
book as Berber doorkeepers of Cairo croon over to them- 
selves on the benches before their lords’ gates. It meets 
the human need for something more warm and personal 
than the official worship of Islam. And it meets it 
by lavishing honour and devotion upon the person of 
Mohammed. The manual warms up to hymns of which 
the closing note is, “And this our Mohammed, he is 
our Lord.” 

This little, cheap, popular work of devotion could not 
in Amman market-place be sold to a Christian for fear 
of the indignation of passers-by. It was, however, after 
a little parleying, laid in my hands as a “ gift,”’ I in my 
turn making the shopman a “ gift’? of money. And 
so we exhausted the literature offered to that corner of 
the Moslem world, yet not quite all its literary contacts ; 
for some of the official class are of Turkish extraction 
and education, and have in their houses libraries in 
French, from which they bring out for the Christian’s 
benefit objections to his Faith based on modern philosophy 
and modern scientific or economic theories. And again 
an influence, semi-literary since it demands the art of 
reading and looking at pictures, is the cinema show, which 


LITERATURE IN ISLAM 161 


takes place every night hard by the mosque, in the centre 
of the town. Strange and lurid must be the view which 
the Arab audience receives of the life of Western and 
so-called Christian lands ! 

That tiny trickle of literature into the out-of-the-way 
Moslem town has been described thus in detail because 
it is strangely representative of great streams of literary 
influence poured out upon the whole Moslem world, and 
more especially upon the Arabic heart of it, each stream 
constituting a several challenge to those who believe that 
Christ is the rightful Master of the thought of men. 

And, first, the Korans on the shelf that were held sacred 
from the touch of a Christian are the representatives 
of all that prolific output of Koranic literature, text, 
comment, law, theology, which the Moslem presses of 
Cairo (to name only the greatest of many renowned 
centres) steadily grind out, and which travels thence to 
Java or South Africa, to India or Brazil, or to a score 
of other lands. This literature, be it remembered, is 
directly responsible in its spiritual attitude (though not 
in any particular precept on that point) for that estimate 
of the Faith of Christ which made it seem outrageous 
for a Christian woman to touch the sacred book. This 
literature, which trains men in amassing texts and 
authorities and in a certain dialectic skill in using them, 
offers to the Christian Church intellectual positions to 
be captured, but yet more, a spiritual attitude to be 
changed and prejudices to be broken down for the 
rightful Lord of human thought. 

But next, those elegant letter-writers and poetry 
books may stand for all the world of Arabic belles-lettres, 
a world sometimes of naive charm, sometimes of piled-up 
luxuriant verbiage. It is a strange phenomenon, this 
polite literature of the great Moslem tongue whose 

12 


162 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


periods exercise such fascination over her children. It 
would sometimes seem as though the intellect of Arabic 
creators had gone all to the elaboration of this magnificent 
vehicle for human thought and then had failed of thoughts 
worthy of such a language. Certain it is that an educa- 
tion in such literature tends to breed readers who are 
content to be paid in words and to gloat over fine periods 
rather than over fine thought. If books of Moslem 
theology give the sense of intellectual positions to be 
won and spiritual attitudes to be changed, books of 
Arabic belles-lettres suggest rather a great instrument 
waiting until the rightful Master shall play upon it. 
The people of Christ in East and West have been 
strangely without ambition here. Some have coveted 
for Him the use of the Arabic tongue because of the area 
it covers and the number of souls who speak it. Shall 
we not add to that aspiration another, based on the very 
magnificence of the language? Who but He can raise 
this great instrument to its fullest beauty and nobility 
by taxing it to express the thoughts of One who spake 
as never man spake? Would that all institutions of 
Christian learning besought the Lord daily to inspire 
some genius among His people of the East to bend this 
language to His will. 

The stories were the largest element in the pile of 
books—forlorn-looking street-leaflet stories. And that 
fact speaks loudly of a human need. The other books, 
the Koranic works, the high Arabic literature, the sheikh’s 
prayer-manual, have a group or an order to praise, 
support, and recommend them. But these little street — 
stories there are none to praise. They found their way 
from Cairo to the desert border simply because of the 
human desire for a story. Who will awaken the Church 
to the meaning of this situation ? Moslem lands to-day, 


LITERATURE IN ISLAM 163 


with the modern increase of primary education, have a 
new population of half-readers or stuttering readers who 
cannot attain to the glories of high literature, but who 
are, like all normal human beings, hungry for stories. 
The recent survey of literature conditions in Moslem 
lands brought in strong appeals for more story-books, 
Christian in spirit and message, from Egypt, Syria, 
Arabia, Algeria, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Persia, India, Java. 
Even while this chapter was in the writing a letter 
arrived from a government education official in Jerusalem, 
a Palestinian, who writes: 


“One of the sad points one cannot help noticing about 
the schools of all types in the Near East is that the 
pupils are slaves to the textbooks, and I believe that 
one of the chief reasons for this slavery is the great 
shortage of light reading-matter.”’ 


Scores of the schools of the Near East are conducted 
in Christ’s name by missionary societies, and “ slavery 
to textbooks” is a strange result of education in the 
name of One who said, “ The truth shall make you 
free’ ! 

Here, then, is a situation and a challenge. A challenge 
first to the Church in the West that provides and controls 
mission finance. It would seem a hard thing for the 
Western man even to picture the difference that would 
have been made in his life if the story element that 
surrounded his youth had been anti-Christian in its 
influence. It is hard for him to realize how many 
unconscious impulses to admire and love the right 
would go with the stories that inspired them. The 
influence of stories has been so overlooked that the man 
they trained will, as a supporter of missions, often refuse 
to feed Christ’s lambs with them, forgetting that the 


164 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


teaching methods of his Saviour honoured the human 
love of a story, and desiring to publish in that Saviour’s 
Name no literature but tracts. Or the same Western 
man, as a missionary in the East, will be assaulted again 
with distrust of the value of a story, and will leave—nay, 
has left—his Eastern co-workers no sense of the vocation 
of the Christian story-teller and story-writer. When 
will the Eastern world see an order of Christian story- 
tellers gathering groups by the wayside? And when 
will she see an output, generous in spirit and quantity, 
of cheap, engaging stories in print with pictures to 
match ? 

That last hidden element in the bookseller’s stock, the 
prayer-manual, represents the most deep and spiritual 
influence of Islam on its children. It recalls to us the 
whole network throughout the Moslem world of sheikh 
or guru and pupils, grouped often in one of the numerous 
and far-spread dervish orders. At its best the literature 
of these movements has expressed the mystical faith 
and given hints of the ecstasy of the saints of Moslem 
mysticism. But such books, mostly medieval, are for 
the very few. On its more ordinary levels this literature 
meets the need of the common man for direction and 
fellowship of the spirit, even though it be but fellowship 
in common rhythmic movements for self-hypnotism. 
This whole literature, whether in its rarely frequented 
heights or in its common manifestations—in the puthi 
of the Bengali villager or the wivd of the dervish order, 
murmured over in odd moments by an Egyptian shop- 
keeper—all this stands as an almost unheeded challenge 
to a Church which easily forgets how normal, frequent, 
and full of rich meaning in her life at its best are the 
words ‘‘ I was in the Spirit.” Where, in the Church’s 
whole approach to the Moslem world, is the man or 


LITERATURE IN ISLAM 165 


woman deliberately set apart to write the message of 
the Inward Way ? 

Challenging, then, in their way are all of the handful 
of Moslem books found that dayin Amman. Challenging, ~ 
too, is the witness that they bear to the cosmopolitan 
life within the cosmos of Islam. The Arab of Amman 
was drawing his reading from Mecca, Damascus, Cairo, 
and Stamboul. It is this fact of the unity of product 
and consumption within Islam which gives special 
point to the proposals mooted at the General Conference 
at Jerusalem, 1924, for a bureau to promote co-operation 
among all Christian writers and circulation agencies in 
the Moslem world. Christians must be shamed into 
acting together in this matter when the counter unity 
is a fact. 

But still more challenging to the man who is Christ’s 
are those two non-Moslem strains of influence that reach 
Amman, as they reach the whole Near Eastern world, 
through the European books from which anti-Christian 
arguments were drawn, and through the cinema, which 
has come to stay. Through book and picture the West | 
is giving its message to the East. Shall books and Vv 
pictures carry every message but the message of Christ ? 


A ie ess ey ‘ 
Da NAN Ty Mera an MO To 
“ay 4 ay ae 8 

Bhd eet , ey 
PRAM A EON bi It Shir! 


ie aetbalcat 
reheat 
' oe & awe re v cot 
re WELY qe WY 


hi Weert 
Py r¢] te) ih 


Susie's Bante i ia Wig 
PTE: ORD 





WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
—FORCES, PURPOSE, AND RESULTS 


BY THE REV. 
WILLIAM H. HALL, M.A., D.D., 


Principal, Preparatory School, American University of 
Beiriit 





CHAPTER XI 


WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
—FORCES, PURPOSE, AND RESULTS 


THis chapter is divided into three parts: the first, 
historical, in which is set forth something of the in- 
tellectual debt which Western peoples owe to Moslem 
lands ; the second, an outline of the Western educational 
forces at present at work in Moslem lands; and the 
third, some comments on the purpose and results of 
Western education in Moslem lands. 


THE INTELLECTUAL DEBT 


In Muir’s Annals of the Early Caliphate: occurs this 
statement : 


“It was through the labours of these learned men 
[certain scholars of Baghdad] that the nations of Europe, 
then shrouded in the darkness of the Middle Ages, be- 
came again acquainted with their own proper, but 
unused and forgotten, patrimony of Grecian science and 
philosophy.” 

In like manner Coppée, in his Conquest of Spain by 
the Avab Moors,? maintains : 


“These Arabian adventurers were to achieve a moral 
triumph far nobler [than arms], to make an intellectual 


1 Sir William Muir, Annals of the Early Caliphate, London, 
1883, Pp. 453. 
* Henry Coppée, History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab 
Moors, Boston, 1881, vol. 2, pp. 297-8. 
169 


/ 


170 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


incursion which was to be acknowledged with gratitude 
in the schools of Oxford, and to be permanently felt ‘as 
far as the confines of Poland and the Highlands of Scot- 
land.’ They were now to throw a flood of light upon the 
darkness of western Europe; and while, directly, they 
were imparting secular knowledge, they were. . . indi- 
rectly to rouse Christendom, and bind all its components 
together in a grand rally for the Christian faith,—positively 
to instruct and thus negatively to strengthen.” 


Just what forces combined to rouse Western Europe 
from its Dark Ages and bring on the Renaissance no one 
can finally state. But certain it is that the influence of 
Arab learning played no small part in the great awaken- 
ing. There were three main channels through which this 
learning of Moslem lands penetrated to the countries 
of Europe: the pilgrims and Crusaders returning from 
Palestine ; the Arab scholars and schools of Sicily ; and 
the Arab Moors of Spain. Through these three sources 
Europe came in touch with the philosophy, science, 
mathematics, and medicine of Moslem lands. 

While Europe was slumbering in the darkness of 
ignorance brought on by the barbarian invasion that 
overthrew the culture of Rome, learning of all kinds 
was flourishing in the lands of the Caliphs. The city of 
Baghdad became an intellectual centre to which were 
drawn the scholars of all lands and faiths. Harun al- 
Rashid, of Avabian Nights fame, and his successors 
patronized every form of learning. They caused books 
to be gathered from all countries into a great library 
at Baghdad. Scholars from Persia and India, from 
Syria and Egypt, were encouraged by royal favour. 
The works of Aristotle, lost to the Western world, were 
translated into Arabic, and in this form passed on to 
Europe. Ibn Sina, known to Europe as Avicenna, born 


EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 171 


in far-away Bukhara about 980, was the recognized 
authority in the interpretation of Aristotle. 

Medicine and medical science flourished. It is said 
that in the eleventh century there were 6,000 students 
of medicine in Baghdad alone. There were well-ordered 
hospitals in Cairo, Damascus, and Baghdad. Geography 
and mathematics were developed to a high degree. 
These Arab scientists had conceived of the spherical 
shape of the earth, had measured the angle of the ecliptic, 
had studied algebra, trigonometry, and analytical 
geometry. They had brought from India the so-called 
Arabic numerals on which our present decimal system 
is based, thus displacing the cumbersome Roman nota- 
tion. In short, to such an extent did the study of science 
advance and so enthusiastically was it encouraged by 
the Abbasid Caliphs, that they were accused of infidelity 
to religion and the Koran. 

While this intellectual activity was going on amongst 
Moslem people, Western Europe was sleeping under the 
spell of the Dark Ages. A portion, at least, of the 
awakening was due to the scholars and the learning of 
Arab lands. 

Then, by the turn of fortune’s wheel, came the invasion 
of Turk and Tatar; and the Dark Ages, lifted from 
Europe, settled over the Arab people who recently had 
done so much for the bringing of dawn in the West. 
And thus there has been left to the West an intellectual 
debt, an inheritance of obligation to “send the light ” 
of education to lands that were once the centre of learning, 

Dr. E. G. Browne closes his lectures on Arabian 
Medicine! with this observation : 


“ Above all there has grown in me, while communing 


1 Edward G, Browne, Avabian Medicine, Cambridge, 1921, 
p. 126, 


172. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


with the minds of these old Arabian and Persian physi- 
cians, a realization of the solidarity of the human in- 
telligence beyond all limitations of race, space, or time.”’ 


It is the preservation of this solidarity that is the call 
to-day for “‘ Western education in Moslem lands.”’ 


WESTERN EDUCATIONAL FORCES AT WORK IN 
MosLEM LANDS 


In estimating the evangelizing agencies in non- 
Christian lands one is prone to think solely in terms of 
Protestant mission institutions, and to overlook the 
educative influences that radiate from the non-Pro- 
testant missions, the commercial enterprises, the con- 
nexion established by emigration, and the government 
school systems. All of these, it must be remembered, 
are contributing their portion, whether great or small, 
to the transforming of life and thought. 

There are three special lines along which the develop- 
ments of Western lands are now, in turn, helping to pay 
to the Moslem lands the educational debt contracted 
during the medieval Dark Ages. First, there are the 
government systems of education; second, the non- 
Protestant missions of Europe; and third, the school 
systems under the patronage of American and European 
Protestant missions. 

Within less than a century there has been a general 
awakening throughout the Moslem world to the need of 
introducing Western systems and Western methods of 
education. As governments of these lands have been 
brought into closer relations with the governments of 
Europe they have realized the vast difference that has 
separated their people from those of the West. With 
the introduction of modern machinery and modern com- 


EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 178 


mercial productions they have come to realize that, if 
they are to compete on anything like even terms, their 
youth must receive a training similar to that given the 
youth of Europe. 

This realization has led to the formulation of educa- 
tional laws, the appointment of ministers of education 
in cabinets, the making of plans for national systems of 
education, and the appropriation of funds for school 
purposes. Hence we find in practically every Moslem 
country of the Near East—North Africa, Egypt, Pales- 
tine, Syria, Turkey, Persia, Mesopotamia—a system of 
public education well outlined, provided for by national 
laws, and supported by the public treasury. In prac- 
tically every case these public systems are based on some 
European system. The grading of the schools, the 
content of the course of study, the departments of the 
university, and the granting of degrees are all repro- 
ductions, in the main, of the French system. 

Where these countries have been under the guidance 
of some foreign Power the systems have become more 
efficient in operation, as in Egypt and Palestine and 
portions of North Africa. In the more independent 
districts, as in Turkey and Persia, the systems exist 
chiefly on paper. But in every country the desirability 
of the Western system is recognized by the enactment 
of the law and the organization of the system, at least 
on paper. Too often the promoters of these systems 
seem to think that their value lies in the university alone, 
take great pains for its establishment, and give too little 
thought to the long years of primary education upon 
which, as a foundation, the university must be built. 
But, nevertheless, there is the positive and official 
recognition of the value of the Western method. The 
laboratory, hospital, library, and museum are recognized 


174 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


as the proper means of instruction. An official seal has 
been placed on the value of the scientific method of 
education as developed in the West, in contrast with the 
method of tradition as practised in the religious schools 
of the East. And in this the educational leaders are 
but receiving back again their own method after nine 
centuries. | 

In evaluating the educational progress of Moslem lands 
during the past fifty years and in forecasting its probable 
influence in the years to come, proper weight must be 
given to these governmental systems, fashioned on 
Western models. As in Palestine, where there is a 
comprehensive school system, efficiently administered, 
with teachers trained and schools inspected, the impact 
of this government programme must be the same power 
for elevation of the people as is public education in 
America or Europe. An efficient educational system 
and superstition cannot long exist side by side. 

After the government school systems should be 
considered those educational systems established and 
maintained by numerous non-Protestant bodies. In 
nearly all the Moslem lands there will be found such 
schools as those of the Jesuit Fathers, the Fréres, the 
Mission Laique, or the Italian schools. Whether or 
not we approve in all cases of their methods, or agree 
with the content of their curricula, we must concede 
that no study of Western education in Moslem lands 
would be complete which did not take account of the 
fact that earnest men and women, confident of the 
uplifting value of their mission, are making their con- 
tribution to the mental development of the youth of 
the East and have a part in the thought-growth of the 
people. 

The Bull of Pope Paul III in 1540, which first formally 


EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 175 


recognized the order of the Jesuits, specified the teaching 
of boys and ignorant persons as part of the work for 
which they were established. Throughout the history 
of the order teaching has been prominent. At one 
time they were the schoolmasters of Europe. Later, 
banished from France, they became active in the conduct 
of schools in the colonies. In Moslem lands they have 
been promoters of education in language, history, and 
science. There are many fine scholars amongst them, 
and their educational influence has been widely extended. 

A clerical teaching order known as the Fréres main- 
tains a very extensive system of schools throughout 
the entire Near East. Their schools are well attended, 
and their course of instruction is one of the best of all 
the Western systems working in the East. Side by side 
with them, and not always, one regrets to state, in the 
greatest harmony, is a French lay order, the ,Mission 
Laique. This mission believes that Western, and 
especially French, culture is worth extending to other 
people. It is a non-religious but not an unreligious 
body of teachers. 

Other orders and missions might be enumerated, but 
those mentioned suffice to show that many educators 
from Europe are giving their lives to the work of in- 
structing the people of Moslem lands in the thought and 
method of the West. 

“A church on every hill-top and a school-house in 
every valley,” used to be the boast of Puritan New 
England. This same sentiment might well be echoed 
by Protestant missions the world over. Education has 
ever been taken for granted as a first result of mission 
work, 

Christian mission work in Moslem lands began a 
little over a century ago. That century has been an era 


176 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


of miraculous growth in world communication. The 
rapid development of these means of communication and 
transportation, the enormous increase in emigration with 
the attendant reports sent back to friends, the penetra- 
tion of commercial products—these, together with other 
contacts with the West, have given an increasing demand 
for the knowledge and training that could come only 
through schools of the Western type. 

Protestant missions have not been slow in meeting this 
demand. At first education seemed about the only 
means of contact with a people who were practically 
closed to appeal in any other way, save perhaps through 
medicine. As a result, the educational phase of mission 
work amongst Moslems has assumed rather a larger 
proportion of attention than in other fields. There 
have been developed complete systems of schools be- 
ginning with the kindergarten and extending through the 
high school, college, and professional schools, systems 
so complete that they afford a boy or girl as thorough a 
training as can be obtained in many a Western land, 
even up through the medical profession in its various 
branches, or the fitting for a teacher, preacher, business 
man, or engineer. 


PURPOSE AND RESULTS OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN 
MosLEM LANDS 


Western Education is chiefly distinguished by the 
application of “ the scientific method ”’ to all departments 
of human knowledge. This method is the following out 
of the Pauline text, ‘‘ Prove all things, hold fast that 
which is good.” In this it is directly opposed to the 
Oriental method of memorizing texts and _ traditions. 
The one is advancing with face to the future, believing 


EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 177 


that the best of truth is still to be discovered ; the other 
advances with its face to the past, believing that the 
golden age lies in the years gone by. 

It is a dictum of Western education that the final goal 
of education is the formation of character. Oriental 
education demanded the memorizing of catechisms and 
commentaries, but made no impact on character. In 
contrast with this, Western education emphasizes 
reality—the taking of beliefs and theories and making 
them vital in the practice of every-day living, and in the 
formation of character. Moreover, Western Christianity 
says, ‘‘ Character can best be developed when the spirit 
of Jesus is dominant in an individual life.’’ 

When Western education comes into Eastern lands it 
does not try to make Westerners of Eastern peoples, but 
rather to give them the Western scientific method recast 
in the Eastern moulds. Western Christian education, 
instead of permitting the “scientific method to run 
rampant and undirected, leaving a train of doubt, takes 
the scientific method and interprets it in the light of 
faith and devotion.” 

The findings of the Jerusalem Conference, 1924, state 
that in the past the chief use of mission schools has been 
as an approach, a means of entrance for other forms of 
mission work. But, now that changing conditions have 
rendered this no longer necessary, the school “‘ has been 
set free for its direct educational task.” They further 
state that, in view of the new self-consciousness aroused 
by the war-years, the new purpose of Moslem peoples 
to demonstrate their ability to make proper use of 
Western appliances and methods of thought— 


“ , . It seems necessary, not only to re-emphasize our 
former aims of educational work, but also to state the 


13 


178 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


necessity of sympathetically guiding students in their 
historical and scientific studies.”’ } 


The regional conference for Syria and Palestine ex- 
pressed the chief object of educational work as follows : 


“ This Conference would reaffirm that the prime object 
of educational work should be to train men and women 
of such Christian character that they will be able to help 
their people develop a proper social and economic life, 
both national and international, to lay a firm foundation 
of honest, upright moral character, and to find the source 
of that character in Jesus Christ as Saviour from sin and 
Lord of life. But the specific object should be the train- 
ing of intellectual leaders who, untrammelled by the 
traditions of the past, whether Christian, Moslem, or 
Jewish, shall do their thinking freely for themselves. 
They do not need dogma and convention so much as 
the mind of Jesus of Nazareth, so that they may awake 
to the eternal fact of truth in Him.” ? 


From these quotations it will be seen that Western 
Christian education in Moslem lands has a far wider task 
than to use its schools primarily for developing a point 
of contact. Everywhere the contact has already been 
made. “ Reports from all fields indicate an increasing 
desire on the part of Moslems for the education given in 
missionary institutions.”” They have come to believe 
in and to trust the results of the physical, intellectual, 
and moral training of the students committed to these. 
schools. That confidence should not be betrayed by 
use of the schools for narrow propaganda. Rather should 
they be devoted to training in the understanding and use 
of the methods and results of modern scholarship. 

1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 1924, New 


York, 1924, p. 21. 
2 Ibid., pp. 111-2. 


EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 179 


Western education, with its Western spirit of demo- 
cracy, its belief in the open mind, its questioning of all 
forms of knowledge, and its insistence that all things 
must be tested and proved, is already an established 
fact in Moslem lands. The government systems of 
education are modelled on this pattern. Many young 
men and women have been sent to the universities of 
Europe and America and are returning to their homes 
with the method and spirit of the West. Extended 
commercial and political relations are rapidly aiding 
in spreading this Western method, as opposed to the 
unquestioning acceptance of traditional dogma and 
dictum. Forces with untold possibilities are thus being 
released. Just here comes the opportunity of Western 
Christian missionary education. 

Amid this rising tide of inquiry, doubt, and infidelity, 
there must appear men and women of faith and training 
who will be as light-houses guiding to a future of sanity, 
tolerance, and truth. ‘In no case will it be possible 
to compete quantitatively with government and other 
institutions,’ says the Jerusalem Conference. For the 
educational institutions that are established is re- 
commended, therefore, “‘the thorough and scientific 
organization of Christian schools and their adequate 
equipment so that they may be equal or superior to any 
non-Christian schools in the community.” } 

The curriculum and teaching in these schools should 
accept fearlessly the method of the day. The mission 
institution will lose its opportunity if it in any degree 
adopts the Oriental system of authority, of “ This is 
the creed,” or ‘“‘ Thus it has been written.’’ Whether 
in questions of science, in questions of history, or in 


1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 79224, - 
New York, 1924, p. 22. 


180 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY | 


questions of religion, it must be in the lead in the inquiry 
after truth. It cannot apply one method in the class- 
room of science and another in the class-room of religion. 
It dare not apply the tests of the “ scientific method ” 
to the claims of Islam, and refuse the same application 
to the claims of Christianity. It must face the facts 
in fairness and faith. It must resolve that its students 
shall go forth to be the lighthouses, respected for their 
learning, trusted for their honesty and frankness, followed 
for their forward look, and beloved for their likeness to 
Christ. 

Education is, in itself, a primary missionary force. 
The North Africa Conference recorded that “ the govern- 
ment schools are preparing our way by breaking down 
prejudices and opening out new horizons.’ This is 
the effect of all systems of modern education. The 
Western Christian mission schools should be in the lead 
in exercising this leadership; they should at all times 
retain Jesus’ outlook on the abundant life. 

When one seeks for the results of Western education 
in Moslem lands he will find them not primarily in tables 
of statistics, but in a constant increase of those who can 
read and write; in higher ideals of social and political 
life; in more hygienic conditions for the community ; 
in horizons that stretch out beyond the village, the sect, 
and the race, and begin to include mankind; in the 
breaking down of superstition, prejudices, and intole- 
rance ; in thoughts lifted above the routine task of living, 
to the glory of life. The processes are slow; the results 
are difficult to calculate; but they are just as worth 
while for the youth of Moslem lands as for the youth 
of Western lands, and just as real. 


WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
—CHANGING FACTORS 


BY 
PROFESSOR PAUL MONROE, Ph.D., LL.D., 


Director, International Institute, Teachers’ College, Columbia 
University, New York 





CHAPTER XII 


WESTERN EDUCATION IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 
—CHANGING FACTORS 


A DISCUSSION of Western education in Moslem lands 
involves the consideration of several factors which would 
not have entered into the situation a few years ago. 

The first of these is the fact that there now exists 
among Arabic peoples, both Christian and Moslem, a 
well-defined renaissance of Arabic culture and hence of 
Arabic education. This renaissance reveals itself in a 
revival of literary activity ; in the publication of nume- 
rous newspapers, periodicals, and pamphlets; in the 
establishment and more generous support of schools ; 
in increased school attendance; and in stimulation of 
the political agitation now occurring throughout these 
lands. It is also shown in a more suspicious or even a 
hostile attitude towards Western educational institu- 
tions. At the same time, there may exist in some of 
these lands an intensified interest in Western culture or 
in certain aspects of it and consequently in the schools 
which represent it. 

It is quite possible that the Arab overestimates the 
importance of this new cultural movement, especially 
in terms of the old learning. The Arab is inclined to 
say that because algebra and chemistry originated with 
his forefathers, and because they were the transmitters 


of Aristotelian learning to the West, therefore the Arab 
183 


184 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


student in this present movement can rapidly become the 
peer of the scientists and the scholars of the West. But 
it is just as possible that the Western educator may 
underestimate the significance of this renaissance and 
the strength of the attachment which the Arab—or 
any member of a suppressed race or people—may have 
for his own culture. The Westerner is inclined to under- 
estimate the stimulus which the renewed vitality of 
Arabic culture may give to the Moslem people. He 
may fail to realize that such a revival is likely to arouse 
hostility to his own culture, for Western culture, more 
forceful and aggressive, tends to ignore and suppress 
that of any weaker or backward people. Above all, 
he may fail to see how much assistance the apostle of 
Western culture or religion may gain by admitting the 
inherent value of the native culture and the significance 
of its renewed vitality. An infusion of this new vitality 
into his own work, through sympathetic appreciation 
and co-operation, may afford a way out of an awkward 
situation where the two cultures seem to have reached 
a hostile vis-a-vis. 

This Arab renaissance affects Syria, Palestine, Meso- 
potamia, Egypt, and, by indirection, the other Moslem 
lands. 

The second factor demanding consideration is that all 
Moslem lands and all Moslem peoples have received a 
new political stimulus, are striving for political organiza- 
tion in modern form, and are endeavouring to throw off 
any political restraint or control exercised over them by 
the Western Powers. This political renaissance began 
perhaps a generation ago, certainly as early as the Young 
Turk movement in 1909. It was greatly stimulated 
during and immediately after the World War and by the 
wmpasse later reached by the French and British policies. 


EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS — 185 


It was recognized as a vital political fact by the Con- 
ference of Lausanne. This political development assumes 
its own peculiar form in each country and with each 
people. 

In Turkey this has taken the form of a nominal 
Republic under a dictator and controlled by a small but 
determined faction. This faction, conscious that the 
Western Powers had made prey of the East by dividing 
its forces, have now retaliated by dividing the forces of 
the West and thus obtaining independence. Chagrined 
by the failures and the weaknesses of their own people, 
as well as resentful of their oppression and exploitation 
by the West, the Turks have determined to succeed even 
at the cost of their ancient capital, one of the great historic 
cities, now seemingly dying. In the endeavour to get 
rid of elements of political weakness, they have sacrificed 
some of the most important economic elements in their 
social structure through the exchange of population and 
the elimination of the Greek and Armenian peoples. 

In Egypt a new constitutional monarchy is replacing 
the English occupation. Notwithstanding the obvious 
advantages conferred by English rule, these rulers them- 
selves have recognized the inevitability of the political 
forces at work. This long training under the English, 
together with taxable assets sufficient to support any 
fairly efficient government, gives greater promise for 
the political future of Egypt than can be hoped for in 
the case of any other new political entities of the Moslem 
world. 

Palestine is restive under a British protectorate or 
mandate which gives nominal control of the local 
government to 15 per cent. of the population. Syria 
is even more restive under a French protectorate which 
has not yet made evident, to the Syrians at least, that 


186 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


its chief interest is in the welfare of the people living 
under the mandate. 

The ancient Empire of Persia is dallying with the idea 
of a republic. With judgment unusual in these days 
of political phantasies, she chooses, for the present at 
least, a constitutional monarchy tempered by a dictator- 
ship rather than a dictatorship clothed in the disguise 
of a republic. For a true republic she certainly will not 
be ready before a generation of modern schooling. 

Iraq—home of ancient monarchies—is experimenting 
with a constitutional monarchy, with a king and a very 
active legislative assembly, under the military protec- 
torate of a British mandate sanctioned by a negotiated 
treaty. 

In addition to the cultural and political forces a third 
factor is to be taken into account. In all these lands 
there is a distinct movement towards the separation of 
the State and the Church. Since in the old Turkish 
Empire, which covered most of the territory under 
consideration, State and Church were identical, and in 
the other lands were closely associated, this change is 
of profound significance. 

As has been the case in all such instances of Church 
and State closely bound together and of schools in the 
hands of the Church, this transition is of special signifi- 
cance to education. In the Protestant Reformation of 
Western Europe, where the Church became an established © 
Church, as it did in most lands, education long remained 
under its supervision. Where the Reformation was 
largely political, as in England, educational foundations 
as well as ecclesiastical foundations were destroyed for 
political ends, and learning suffered greatly in conse- 
quence. 

The immediate effect of the disestablishment of the 


EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS _ 187 


Church in Moslem lands must inevitably be a great 
curtailment of education, due to the destruction of the 
old system, with its trust funds held by the Church. 
To balance that loss stands the effort of the Government 
to furnish facilities for modern education. These efforts 
are likely to be woefully inadequate, yet will be jealously 
guarded, especially from any encroachment by eccle- 
siastical authorities, either native or foreign. 

The changes produced by these three new factors are 
so profound that it must be recognized that the past of 
Western education in Moslem lands is now a closed 
chapter. This fact is perfectly obvious to all concerned 
in the work in Turkey. It is little less obvious, but 
perhaps as profoundly true, in all the other lands under 
discussion. | 

Western education in these Moslem lands of the Near 
East entered a new epoch with the close of the World 
War. There are now demanded a new policy and a new 
programme which call for the most serious consideration. 
Much thought is now being given to the problem by all 
concerned. 

For those not on the ground, but interested in the 
problem, one further factor must be borne in mind. The 
various Moslem countries present very diverse situations. 
In Turkey there is a hostility to all Western Governments 
and all Western enterprises, due to her experiences of a 
century past. There is a suspicion of, if not a direct 
hostility to, Western education, especially mission educa- 
tion, owing to the fact that it has been directed toward 
the minority peoples and not toward the Turks. Whether 
or not this suspicion is justified, it undoubtedly exists. 
Furthermore, there exists a hostility to these schools 
on the part of the Turkish people as well as of the Turkish 
authorities, based upon the belief that they have been 


188 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


directly responsible, in part at least, for the political 
misfortunes of Turkey. And while it can be proved that 
such schools have taken no part whatever in agitation, 
or in any overt act against the established authorities, 
it cannot be denied that there is in Western education, 
as interpreted by Americans, even by American mis- 
sionaries, a political bias hostile to the traditional 
political ideals and practices of the East. It cannot be 
maintained that this education produced the modern 
Bulgaria without admitting that it had some influence 
on the political ideas and aspirations of the other minority 
peoples of the old Turkish Empire. This situation, how- 
ever, is of the past, even if the hostility is not. The 
present problems are entirely new. Turkey, with the 
form of a modern republic, with the social minorities 
eliminated and the Moslem Church disestablished, presents 
an entirely new situation and demands on the part of 
Western educators an entirely new policy. What shall 
this policy be ? How shall the West disarm hostility or 
suspicion ? What shall it aim to contribute to the 
Turks ? What shall it aim to accomplish for Western 
culture and for Christianity ? 

These same questions arise but with varying incidence 
in the other Moslem lands. In Egypt the hostility toward 
mission educational work is less pronounced. This may 
be due to the facts that in this country contacts with 
the West have been chiefly political, have been for many 
years past with one Government only, and have been of 
a benevolent and beneficial character. It may be due 
in part to the fact that there has always been a minority 
Christian population, native to the land, and causing 
little or no political difficulty. 

In Syria the immediate problem lies chiefly in the 
adjustment of policy and the political mandatory power. 


EDUCATION: CHANGING FACTORS — 189 


The French plan in the mandate territory is to work out 
their educational programme chiefly through the Church, 
which means chiefly through the Roman Catholic religious 
orders. At present, then, there are two distinct problems 
of adjustment in this area. The one is with the native 
population. Since this is part Christian, part Moslem, 
the situation is much easier than where the native popula- 
tion is entirely Moslem. The other problem is adjustment 
with a mandatory Power accustomed to use the Church 
as an instrument of government and to this end to give 
the Church large authority over education. 

The most that can be asked or expected is a working 
agreement of tolerance. The situation is very greatly 
eased by the facts that the one leading mission educational 
institution has long been cosmopolitan in the composition 
of its student body and staff and that it has sent its 
graduates into important positions of social and govern- 
ment service throughout the Near East. Furthermore, 
it has served the Arabic peoples of the old Turkish Empire 
and has for its backing the Arabic sentiment in so far 
as this is indifferent or hostile to the old Turkish political 
domination. 

In Persia also a more friendly attitude is found toward 
the Western schools. Despite the fanaticism and igno- 
rance of the masses of the people, the mission schools 
are patronized by the families of the best classes; not 
only by those of the landed gentry, as is chiefly the case 
in Egypt, but also by the official class. 

Altogether the new conditions, political, cultural, and 
religious, call for a policy differing in many respects from 
that of the past, and present a new opportunity through- 
out the Moslem lands. While antagonisms, hostility, and 
suspicion are still present, yet there is nevertheless a 
greater opportunity. 


199 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


The Turkish authorities may restrict the privileges 
of the mission school; they at least recognize its influence 
even with the Moslem population. They may try to 
sever all religious instruction and influence from the 
schools ; they are at least doing the same thing with the 
schools for Moslems. The profound political, eccle- 
siastical, and cultural changes which have taken place 
indicate a willingness to learn or at least a willingness 
to consider new evidence and to change from immemorial 
custom. Hostility to Western power and culture, even 
in India, does not imply an unwillingness to learn from 
these contacts and to profit by them. While it must 
be recognized that there is a new Sensitiveness and a 
renewal of fanatical intolerance throughout the Moslem 
world, felt even as far away as with the Moros of the 
Philippines, this again is but the reaction of the masses 
to the conviction of their leaders that Western culture and 
Western schools, and even Western religion, are making, 
or have the opportunity of making, a new and a more 
forceful appeal to the Moslem world. 

A few of the changes in policy made necessary, or at 
least desirable, by the new situation may be indicated. 

Obviously, all non-governmental work will have to be 
carried on under closer government supervision than 
heretofore. It would, therefore, seem desirable that 
Western education should seek to adapt itself more 
closely to government standards than in the past. The 
essential things in mission education are its purpose, 
spirit, and method. Institutional organization and 
arrangement of curriculum materials are not so essential. 
It seems unwise for mission educators to sacrifice so 
much of their main purpose for the preservation of those 
externals to which they had been accustomed in the 
West. 


EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS | 191 


Education is now recognized as a great political power, 
just as heretofore it has been recognized as a great 
religious power. It is but natural that all these new 
organizations, not yet assured of their stability, should 
seek to control education as a means of strengthening 
their hold on the people. Western education, mission 
education, should further this end by assisting public 
education wherever possible, by complying cheerfully 
with minimum political requirements which perhaps are 
seldom required in our own country, and by seeking to 
demonstrate to the political authorities and to the public 
at large that private initiative in education, including the 
enterprises of mission or Western education, can con- 
tribute to general progress and welfare. Such contribu- 
tion may be made by experiment, by demonstration of 
superiority in certain lines, by caring for special ability, 
and by the introduction of elements which the Government 
can never control or command. 

In Persia, where there is a receptive attitude on the 
part of the officials to Western ideas, this can readily be 
done. In Turkey, where the attitude is suspicious, if 
not hostile, it will be far more difficult. In Egypt, and 
wherever there is a desire to learn from democracy, even 
though democracy is only partially conceived, the position 
just outlined can easily be taken by Western education 
with profit to both parties. 

A second need is adjustment to the actual life and 
needs of the community, to the culture of the people. 
This is more difficult because it is less tangible than is 
adjustment to the policy of the Government. The latter 
may call for diplomacy and modification of externals ; 
the former demands close study, great insight, and modi- 
fication of essentials. It may be that approach to the 
life of the people, now more open and sensitive than 


192 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


ever before, can be better made through agriculture 
and industry than through the learned professions. It 
may be that the school-teacher or the trained agricul- 
turist or artisan is a far more important person to produce 
than the physician, the government official, the diplomat, 
the lawyer, or the merchant. 

It is even possible that investigation of the daily 
routine of life in home conditions, in industrial process, 
in rural custom, followed by judicious attempts to 
improve this routine, is more important, and a more 
direct way to the end sought than the production of 
a few religious teachers who follow the traditional 
formal routine. 

The concept of salvation as the saving health of a 
community, or of society, or of a people, as well as of 
selected individuals, has been slow to dawn upon the 
religious world. Its dawn is even more retarded in the 
smaller world of religious or mission education. Perhaps 
the new day of opportunity in the Near East awaits such 
a dawn. Certainly the new opportunity for such a closer 
approach to the people now exists. They are conscious 
of their many defects, conscious that their own Govern- 
ment cannot fully meet these deficiencies. In many 
instances they are awaiting just such leadership. The 
significance of the educational work of the Near East 
Relief enterprises lies in its intimate connexion with the 
whole life of the child and hence with the entire life of 
the communities of which these children become members. 
This seeking the good of society rather than merely that 
of the person educated is particularly the thing which 
mission education should demonstrate for the members 
of retarded groups. 

Looked at from another point of view, the present 
situation offers a third aspect of the new opportunity 


EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS — 198 


and the need for a new policy. Clearly the chief contri- 
bution which Western education can offer to native’ 
education is to lead the way by experimentation and 
demonstration. Its endeavours should be more novel, 
its achievements more specialized, than those of the 
usual governmental and private native efforts. It can 
never compete in quantity ; it should excel in quality, not 
only of products but also of types of endeavour. Western 
education in the Orient should not be tied down too 
closely to an imitation of the traditional models. Western 
educators abroad should be conscious of the fact that 
what was standard in their own experience is rapidly 
being changed in the homeland through subsequent 
experience ; that educational conditions at home are not 
static if they are vitally alive ; so that Western education 
abroad should not be static. Efficiency or success in 
the conventional is not sufficient. It may be adequate 
for the individual student; it does not suffice for the 
society to which this education is on mission. 

In this closer approach to the life of the people it is 
evident that the educational work itself should be shared 
in by the people of the country concerned. Not only on 
the teaching staff, but in administration and control, 
native co-operation should be more largely sought. 
This is not so simple a proposition in the Near East as 
it is in the Far East, though even there it is far from 
simple. The point is, that so long as this mission educa- 
tion remains wholly alien, so long does it miss its main 
purpose of entering fully into the life of the people, and 
thus ceasing to be wholly Western or alien, but becoming 
a common Christian product and possession, 

One final point of profound change may be mentioned 
although its possibility may be a debated question. It 
is closely related to the point previously made. If 

14 


194 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


education should seek to influence the entire life of the 
community, then one of the best ways of doing this 
would be to demonstrate its efficiency in the entire life 
of certain small communities, just as now it seeks to 
accomplish its main purpose by influencing a few in- 
dividuals. Especially with mission education, which 
seeks to make a demonstration of the superiority of a 
life of reason, of faith, and of right conduct—of the 
unity of life, physical, economic, social, spiritual—it 
would seem that the most effective way of doing this is 
to show changes wrought in the life of some entire com- 
munity. Strangely enough, this has seldom been at- 
tempted, and that only recently. Progress in rural life, 
in agriculture, in health conditions, in industrial relations, 
has been improved in our Western world by such group 
demonstrations. It is high time that Western education 
in Eastern lands made serious attempts of this kind. 
Whether old or new in policy is urged, there arises the 
more fundamental question of the place and function 
of a mission education in Moslem lands. Why should 
Christian men and woman devote either their funds or 
their lives to this work ? What is its need, its justifica- 
tion? What are its results? The answer given by 
those native leaders who patronize or favour the schools, 
and that given by the Western educator experienced in 
the work, are fundamentally the same. The one out- 
standing responsibility, the one outstanding contribu-/ 
tion, of mission education is character-building. While 
strong moral traits may be developed by the Oriental 
home, or even by the Oriental religion or social life, this 
is not usually the case. And, even if it is, the school 
has little to do with the result. The home and social 
organization may furnish efficiency ; the native religion 
may furnish social motives and moral ideas ; the school 


EDUCATION : CHANGING FACTORS 195 


may furnish knowledge. But it is the vital organic 
union of these factors which constitutes character, and 
that union the mission school can and does bring about 
far oftener than does any indigenous agency. For this 
reason thoughtful native teachers welcome the mission 
school. 

In addition, the Western school contributes a number 
of other results which the East consciously needs. One 
is a training in democratic ideas and practices, for which 
all these people are now reaching out. Another is the 
idea of efficiency, the working over of knowledge into 
conduct, of which the native schools have little concep- 
tion. Another is that of the harmonious co-operation of 
several national and religious groups which in their 
natural condition are always hostile. Still another is 
the concept of education as affecting the life of the 
community, its concept as the vital social or political 
influence in contrast with the external or physical force 
represented by public officials or soldiery. In this last 
respect Western education needs to assume a more 
definite leadership in agriculture and in the direction of 
commerce and public health than it has hitherto done. 

Whether viewed from the standpoint of opportunity, 
of policy, of achievement, or of function, Western educa- 
tion in Moslem lands is now facing a crisis, and both needs 
and deserves the sympathetic interest and support of 
the homeland. 


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INFLUENCES TOWARDS A NEW ART IN 
EGYPT AND PALESTINE 


BY 
W. A; STEWART, -F.RS.A., 


Director of the Egyptian School of Arts and Crafts, Cairo ; 
Inspector of Industrial Arts and Crafts to the Egyptian 
Government 


‘. AEN 
Po ECE 


.% 4 





CHAR PERT AIL 


INFLUENCES TOWARDS A NEW ART IN EGYPT 
AND PALESTINE 


ALTHOUGH it may not be quite correct to say that Moslem 
art has never been creative, it is generally admitted 
that it has always shown great powers of absorption ; 
it has made use of whatever forms of art came to it and 
has moulded them to its special requirements. 

This is very evident in India and in Egypt. Both 
countries had a pronounced native art much older than 
the earliest Moslem work, and in both countries there 
are traces of the influence of this older work in the Moslem 
ornament and architecture. In Egypt the Early Fatimid 
work is strongly reminiscent of the Greek, Roman, and 
Byzantine ornament upon which it is undoubtedly 
based. The ornamentation of the mosque of Ibn Tulun 
in Cairo is almost a frank importation of the decoration 
of the mosque at Samarra which Ibn Tulun had seen 
when a boy, and this again is very Byzantine in 
character. 

In much earlier work there is a use of living forms of 
birds, animals, and human figures which still further 
indicates the Byzantine parentage, and this use of 
figures, though discontinued in the Saracen art of Egypt, 
continues in that of Persia and India, and becomes quite 
a characteristic feature, particularly in the art of painting, 


which was never so highly developed in Egypt as in 
199 


200 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the more eastern Moslem countries. Egypt has never 
developed the art of the painted picture as an end in it- 
self. All Egyptian art has ever had a basis of utility. In 
ancient Egypt the tomb and the many sides of a complex 
religion connected with the ritual of burial and the welfare 
of the soul in the after-world of the spirit demanded a 
form of decoration that was more in the nature of a 
pictorial list of necessary objects and events than of an 
esthetic interpretation of nature. 

It is true that in the long series of tomb reliefs and 
paintings we find work that reaches great heights of 
artistic achievement, but such work is the exception, not 
the rule, and is proof of the poetic and imaginative 
temperament of the craftsman overcoming the difficulties 
and limitations of his routine work. In Saracen work 
also we find that all art seems to have had a basis of 
utility. It is the art of the craftsman rather than that 
of the artist as we think of him to-day, an art concerned 
with the decoration of buildings, books, and articles 
of domestic use, not with pictures. 

A ceiling becomes a wonderful maze of complex ara- 
besques in colour and gold; a brass bowl is adorned 
with scrolls in engraving and silver inlay; a Koran is 
beautiful with pages marvellously illuminated, with 
details of form and colour so delicately worked that we 
are amazed at the patience and skill that produced it. 
But the decoration is always decoration. We look in 
vain for the picture painted for its own sake, or for the 
sculptured figure that was an end in itself. It follows, 
therefore, that Moslem art, as it has continued to our 
times, should have become more and more the art of the 
craftsman. It no longer exists in Egypt outside the 
native workshops, where indeed the traditions are still 
alive but linger on in a feeble condition, degenerating 


NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 201 


more and more into a copying and repetition of what 
has been done before. 

Egypt is awaiting another influence from outside, and 
it is certain that that influence will come, or is already 
coming, from Europe. 

If we examine the educational system in force in 
Egypt, it is not difficult to understand why art has not 
developed. Art has been almost entirely neglected. 
Drawing, in an elementary form, is part of the curriculum 
of primary and secondary education; but esthetics, 
the history of art, and its influence upon mankind, have 
-never been dealt with. 

Pictures and music have in the past been looked upon 
as frivolous and unnecessary. The average young Moslem 
is not concerned with these things, and has no conception 
of the ennobling influence of creative art upon life. The 
craftsman who may be still capable of producing some- 
thing fine is looked upon as a workman, a member of 
the lower classes, and is rarely given the encouragement 
or payment which real skill deserves. The painting is 
regarded as little better than a photograph, and its 
essential qualities are but rarely understood. 

We see, then, that there are no traditions of art, and 
that the rising generation has none of the artistic in- 
fluences which surround the European and American 
child in the house and in the school, to stimulate and 
guide it. 

We must now examine what is being done to remedy 
these conditions. J’or many years students from Egyp- 
tian schools have been sent on educational missions to 
Europe, where they have imbibed a little of the culture 
and refinement of life in the great educational centres. 
These young men, on returning to Cairo, miss the ex- 
hibitions, the music, and the theatres to which they 


202 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


have grown accustomed in Europe, and this rising demand 
for something more than the usual café life of Cairo has 
produced the beginnings of a local drama which promises 
to develop rapidly into a fine local art of the theatre. 
Already plays are being produced in Arabic which are 
genuine creations based on the social life and problems 
of the people, not merely translations of European plays. 
The new drama has brought with it a little group of 
local scene-painters, some of them trained in Italy and 
France, and they are taking their part in the revival of 
theatrical art. Egyptians have much natural talent 
as actors, and a really living drama shows signs of healthy 
growth. 

A school of fine arts and a school of artistic crafts have 
been established. Nothing great has so far been achieved, 
but several students from these schools have been sent 
to France and England and have done work which is 
full of promise. A little group of local student painters 
has held exhibitions in Cairo which had sufficient interest 
to justify the formation of an arts society. This society 
holds an annual exhibition of painting, sculpture, and 
decorative arts, to which any local artist, of whatever 
nationality, may contribute. The last exhibition was 
officially opened by His Majesty King Fuad, whose 
kindly sympathy in the movement is doing much to make 
it officially recognized by the Government as of con- 
siderable educational importance. The barriers of pre- 
judice and official neglect are being broken down by the 
force of public opinion, and in this there is great hope 
for the future. 

The Arts Society has for president H.H. Prince Yousef 
Kamal, a man whose wide knowledge of Oriental art is 
a great help. He is an enthusiastic collector, and his 
palace at Mataria is a treasure-house of beautiful objects 


NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 2038 


which will some day become the property of the national 
museum. His Highness is keenly interested in the 
society, has himself endowed the school of fine arts, and 
has sent the best students for further training in Paris. 

But all efforts to train artists will be futile without 
more general local patronage, and this is at present the 
great difficulty. Education has been so lacking in the 
arts that the general public does not yet appreciate the 
work of the artists. To overcome this difficulty a 
special Committee of Fine Arts has been recently formed 
to advise the Ministry of Education on changes in its 
courses of study, and to encourage in every possible way 
the local artists and craftsmen. A sum of {£10,000 
(Egyptian) was voted by Parliament to this Committee, 
and with this sum several students have already been 
sent to Europe. Grants have been voted to local music 
and drama, and a book on the history of art is being 
translated into Arabic. The history of art is to be 
introduced into the curriculum of primary and secondary 
schools, and music and eurythmics are to be taught. 

Large sums of money are allocated for further develop- 
ments in the industrial schools, particularly for the 
weaving and carpet-making industries, and it is proposed 
to set up a modern dye-works in order to improve this 
very important industry, upon which the beauty of so 
many other crafts depends. It is intended to build as 
soon as possible specially designed schools for the fine 
arts and for the arts and crafts. Both these schools 
are at present housed in old buildings which are un- 
suitable and badly lighted. 

A proposal has been made to the Public Works Ministry 
that some control be exercised over the designs for all 
buildings in the city to ensure that they maintain a 
standard of dignity and beauty and conform to a general 


204 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


scheme; also, that state buildings include decoration 
of the interiors in order to give local artists an opportunity 
for exercising their art in mural painting. With some 
such state patronage and encouragement a lead will be 
given to the public, for without patronage art cannot 
exist. Hitherto there has been no control of private 
building other than that required by certain regulations 
of sanitation and public safety. Styles of every de- 
scription have been erected, and the confused effect and 
general lack of taste and suitability to climate and 
traditions is very lamentable. State buildings also have, 
so far, shown no tendency to adopt a local style of archi- 
tecture, with the exception of the court-house at Asytt. 
In this building a most praiseworthy effort has been 
made to use a modified Arabic style of architecture with 
the limitations imposed by the materials of construction, 
namely, sand-bricks. The result is a dignified, unos- 
tentatious structure whose decorative features are the 
logical outcome of a right use of material. 

In Lord Kitchener’s period of office a scheme was 
drawn up to impose the Arabic style on all buildings 
erected in the vicinity of the ancient mosque of Sultan 
Hassan in order that this noble monument should have a 
fitting setting. Some of the work was completed, and 
the houses approach the old Arabic buildings in beauty 
and dignity. With so many examples of the flower of 
Moslem architecture in the city of Cairo, it is a pity that 
more effort has not been made to keep up the tradition 
and to adopt a style of state architecture that, while 
allowing for the requirements of modern conditions, 
would be in keeping with the old monuments which are 
the charm of Cairo. Unfortunately, Egyptian authorities 
prefer the more florid styles of the French Louis, and have 
used these styles in both public and private buildings. 


NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 205 


They cannot bring themselves to decide upon the Arabic 
style as an official state architecture. It is looked 
upon by most of them as out-of-date and unsuitable to 
modern conditions of life; but that this is not the case 
is amply proved by the experiments of one or two Euro- 
peans who have built houses in the Arabic style with 
ereat success. The French authorities in Morocco have 
used the Arabic style for their public buildings, and the 
style has been adopted by local notables for their private 
houses. This has led to a revival of ceramic art and of 
Arabic carving in wood and stone, and the example 
might very well be followed in Egypt, where so many fine 
models already exist. 

There has been much discussion as to the style of art 
which should be encouraged in Egypt. There are 
many people who regret that the Arabic style is dying 
out, and who urge that European art should not be 
encouraged. There is a certain amount of work being 
done in the style of ancient Egypt, but this period of 
history is further from, and more foreign to, the modern 
Egyptians than Arabic art. Again, painting, as repre- 
sented by the picture, does not exist in Arabic art. It 
is, therefore, somewhat difficult to decide what should 
be done. In my opinion, it is advisable to give every 
possible opportunity for the development of talent, to 
make the scheme of training very wide, and to base 
it upon the study of historic examples and upon nature, 
but to leave style severely alone. Style will come by 
itself, and will be the expression of what the people 
themselves bring to their art. It cannot be imposed 
from outside, and it is a mistake to attempt to do so. 
Already some of the local painters who have come under 
the influence of French impressionist art show signs of 
becoming mere copyists of this style of painting. They 


206 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


do not know that the work of Monet, for example, is 
based upon a very sound knowledge of drawing. The 
quick and easy brushwork attracts them, and their own 
efforts to imitate this show a sad lack of knowledge of 
real structure. 

The national library contains a rich collection of fine 
oriental miniatures which could well be studied. They 
are as important in their way as are the paintings of 
Europe, and they should have their influence in the making 
of a native school of Egyptian art. 

The country needs an art gallery. It has fine museums 
of Arabic, Coptic, and Egyptian work, but no general 
art gallery where students who cannot afford to travel 
may ‘study the various schools of painting. The Art 
Society intends to do something to this end by holding 
occasional international exhibitions by invitation, from 
which it hopes to make purchases towards a national 
collection. It also proposes to offer awards to local 
artists and craftsmen. There is, therefore, considerable 
activity towards a revival of art in Egypt. Undoubtedly 
there are two vital needs: further propaganda to stimu- 
late the public appreciation for the finer things of beauty 
in life, and more general education in esthetics. 

There is no doubt that the Egyptians have artistic 
ability. Within certain limits they show very con- 
siderable taste. In native costume, for example, one 
seldom finds a mistake. The colours of the silk caftans 
of the sheikhs are beautiful; the silk-weaving craft of 
Cairo is still one of very real excellence, and should 
be encouraged in every possible way. It depends upon 
the continuance of native costume ; and this is tending 
year by year toward the vanishing point. By the 
younger students, who wear European dress, it is looked 
upon as old-fashioned and almost a symbol of lack of 


NEW ART IN EGYPT AND PALESTINE 207 


civilization; but it is still the official dress for sheikhs 
at the Houses of Parliament and at court receptions. 
This is as it should be, and one hopes that the King will 
maintain a regulation which gives dignity to so valuable 
a national possession. In Egypt and Palestine almost 
every district has some characteristic feature of its own, 
either of colour or of form. The production of the special 
materials and colours is in many cases a local industry 
with age-long traditions, and it would be a real loss to 
the interest and beauty of Eastern life if European 
costume, with its monotony of form and colour, became 
universal. 

We have noted that education in crafts is already going 
on, but it will be a long time before the students now 
being educated in artistic crafts begin to influence the 
actual output of local workshops. 

The conditions of these shops are most primitive. In 
the provinces, jewellers, brass workers, makers of inlay 
work, and weavers use the most elementary tools 
and methods, sometimes even still those that must have 
been employed in the days of the Pharaohs. One does 
not regret that the tools and methods are primitive, but 
there seems to be no inspiration in design and very little 
skill in drawing. Old Arabic geometrical patterns are 
often so broken and badly drawn as to be almost unre- 
cognizable, and copies of old Egyptian forms have lost 
all the beauty and refinement of line that make them so 
interesting in the originals. 

Woven patterns are produced by the draw-loom 
system of the Middle Ages and the patterns are, in con- 
sequence, very limited in size of repeat. The increasing 
use of the Jacquard loom will gradually open the way 
to greater variety of design, but education in drawing is 
very necessary for all the crafts in order to raise them 


208 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


to higher artistic excellence. Improved methods of 
work must also be introduced or many of the crafts will 
be unable to compete with the imported products from 
Europe and Japan. In the weaving industry, for example, 
there is a great deal of wasted and costly hand-labour 
in all the preparatory processes, which could be done by 
modern machinery to cheapen the final product. 

Egypt has no need to go through the long, slow develop- 
ment of Europe in the textile industries. Her weavers 
are very Skilled in the essentials of their craft, and there 
seems to be no reason why up-to-date machinery should 
not be introduced. The traditions and Oriental character 
of her products could be retained, but modern methods 
must, sooner or later, be introduced or one of her largest 
industries will shortly be unable to exist. 

Whatever religious objections ever existed against the 
representation of living or human forms in art are gradu- 
ally dying out. There is a growing interest in the art of 
portraiture, and portraits, often of native ladies, are 
frequently shown in the exhibitions of the Society of 
Arts. Egyptian ladies are taking a very prominent part 
in the revivalofart. They helped to organize and support 
the first exhibition of pictures, and several of them con- 
tribute work, both in painting and in sculpture. By their 
propaganda in the homes they are doing a great deal to 
widen the interest in art among their people, and one 
hopes that the Government will take a more serious 
interest in a revival that is already proved to spring 
from the desires of the people themselves. 

Further stimulus from outside will doubtless be needed, 
but the germs are already planted, and, with sympathetic 
support and encouragement, the future should be full of 
hope. 


MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN 
IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD—THE NEAR 
AND MIDDLE EAST 


BY 
CAROLINE M. BUCHANAN, Litt.D., 


American Girls’ College, Cairo 


15 


SS AV PENA 
Me 
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rest 


Te ed rail: 
; es th a inte! 
pee ; 


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A COD, dag 





CHAPTER XIV 


MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
ISLAMIC WORLD—THE NEAR AND MIDDLE 
EAST 


In the station square at Cairo there stands a statue to 
commemorate the renaissance of Egypt. The artist has 
carved a marble sphinx as a fitting reminder of Egypt’s 
ancient glories and a symbol of her age-long sleep. At the 
side of the sphinx is an Egyptian woman, her hand 
stretched forth to end that slumber by her arousing 
touch. Looking at that outstretched hand, and into 
the beautiful face, one is thrilled by the thought of the 
part that the Oriental woman is already playing, and the 
greater part she may still play, in the awakening not 
of Egypt only, but of the whole of the Near East. What 
could she not achieve, faith whispers, if out of her eyes 
looked the spirit of Jesus, and, exchanging the yoke of 
Islam for His blessed yoke, she attained in His service 
true liberty of soul, “ the liberty wherewith Christ hath 
made us free’! 

From Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia; from Egypt, 
the Sudan, and Abyssinia; from Arabia, Palestine, 
Syria, and Turkey; from Mesopotamia, Persia, and 
Central Turkistan to the Dutch East Indies, we hear 
the confident voices of the few women who have stepped 
out into a degree of social liberty ; the cries of those who 


are struggling to be free; and the unhappy murmur of 
211 


212 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the women and girls who are, as yet, ignorant of any 
world outside of their four walls. We get far more than 
glimmerings of progress along educational, literary, 
political, social, and religious lines. 

In direct opposition to Islamic tradition and practice, 
Moslem women in the Near East are beginning to demand 
an education. A definite organized movement has gone 
forward in Turkey ; and a compulsory education clause, 
which includes girls, was placed in the Constitution of 
Egypt in April 1923, when the first complete Con- 
stitution was secured, although neither country, as yet, 
has been able, because of lack of teachers, buildings, and 
equipment, fully to enforce the education laws. 

In Turkey, especially, there have been rapid strides 
toward the goal. Ina Teachers’ Association which met 
in 1924 in Angora, Constantinople alone supplied 1,000 
women delegates, and Angora 200. In Smyrna there is 
the fine large Training School for Girls, and the public 
schools are devoting much time and money to the normal, 
or teacher-training, departments. 

There is a growing desire for a liberal, thoroughgoing 
education. No longer do the best families depend upon 
governesses: the girls are sent to school, and later to 
the Constantinople College for Women or to the Uni- 
versity, where women are now on an equal footing with 
men. In this co-educational institution there are women 
students in science, literature, and law. Twelve women 
entered the medical class in 1924. The same year there 
were three women candidates for degrees in law. Many 
women have studied abroad, among them several pro- 
minent Turkish women doctors of medicine. Without 
doubt the women of Turkey lead in the educational 
movement of the Islamic world. 

Egypt is travelling along rapidly in the footsteps of 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 213 


Turkey. The first girl to be sent abroad for her educa- 
tion went in rgo1, and in 1924 there were, in England 
alone, twenty-one young women students sent from 
Egypt by the Ministry of Education. Besides these, 
many are studying at their own or their parents’ expense, 
in France, England, and Germany, and a few in the 
United States. Art, domestic science, physical training, 
medicine, nursing, kindergarten, special teacher training, 
and law are the subjects which are studied. 

In October 1924, Miss Nebaweeya Moosa, one of the 
young women who were educated abroad, was made 
Superintendent of Girls’ Schools in Egypt, a position 
never before occupied by a woman. This remarkable 
woman quite independently some time ago opened her 
‘“ model school.”” She is the only woman who has been 
decorated by the King with “‘ The Order of the Nile.’ 
Her book, Woman and Work, in Arabic, is of unusual 
merit. The Educational Council, which consists of 
four men inspectors and Miss Nebaweeya Moosa, meets 
with the Minister of Education to discuss the conduct of 
the schools. 

From the time of the establishment of the first girls’ 
school by the American Mission in 1856, up to 1903, that 
mission and others led in girls’ education. Even in 1906, 
there were in all Egypt, with its 11,000,000 inhabitants, 
only 33,280 girls in government schools, Now the 
Government has opened girls’ schools in every city and 
in almost all the towns along the Nile, and the number 
of pupils has increased to 99,402. The American Girls’ 
College in Cairo graduated its first Moslem student in 
1916, and since that time young women are remaining 
in the college in increasing numbers until they complete 
the course. Men no longer fear to marry educated wives. 
Neither are the fathers and mothers afraid of Christian 


214 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


schools, and Moslem young women are sent to mission 
schools in Egypt with absolute freedom. The number 
of women who can read (seven out of every thousand in 
191g) is rapidly increasing, although the proportion of 
literates is still pitifully small (fifteen out of every thou- 
sand in 1921-22). One of the most hopeful signs of 
progress is the willingness of the Moslem girl to become 
a teacher. We see this even among the richer class. 
Women are pushing their daughters into the medical 
professions also. The spirit of service has come only to 
the few in Egypt, it is true; but these few are leaders, 
and in consequence benevolent and industrial schools 
for girls are springing up. 

In Persia education for girls is now being successfully 
promoted by the Persians themselves. Bishop Linton 
says: ‘‘ Christian schools have always been in the fore- 
front in education in Persia, and setting a standard which 
Persian schools have sought to reach.” 

From the new Mesopotamia comes word of a great 
thirst for education, including the education of girls. 
A member of the family of the Nagib of Baghdad, head 
of the religious aristocracy, approached a missionary, 
saying, ‘“‘ If you will establish a school for girls in Baghdad 
I will guarantee you sixty girls from the Nagib family.’’ 
To have the Arabs realize the value of an education for 
their daughters indeed gives one a real thrill. 

Syria is much to the front in the Moslem woman’s 
educational movement. Even from conservative Damas- 
cus girls are being sent to Beirit for their education, 
a thing much condemned a few years ago. A writer 
from Syria says: 


“Tt is impossible to give statistics, but the proportion 
of educated women in Syria is much higher than it was 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 215 


ten years ago. The girls are crowding into our schools, 
and the fathers say they are sending them to our mission 
schools because of the moral training the school gives.”’ 


From Dr. J. Kelly Giffen, a pioneer missionary in the 
Sudan, comes the word that even there, in the black 
belt, women and girls from Islamic homes are learning 
the value of education, and making great sacrifices for 
it. He gives many striking examples. 

A missionary from Atbara writes of a Sudanese woman 
who was left a widow when her children were young : 


“She works hard in order to earn enough money not 
only to feed her children, but also to send them to school. 
These schools and their methods of education are spoken 
of very appreciatively by Sudanese women. And it is 
not only the material advantages of a good education 
for which they look. Those who have had a mission 
education are very anxious for their children to come to 
Christian schools and to receive the same teaching which 
they found to be an inspiration and help to themselves, 
a teaching of which they see the effect in character and 
in life.” 

A missionary who has laboured long in the Near East 
says: 


“TI am convinced that the emancipation of the Oriental 
woman, that is, raising her status to that of her Western 
Christian sisters, carries the key to the whole Islamic 
situation.” 


Again, quoting one who has studied the situation in 
Turkey : 


“Those who watch the march of events both in Con- 
stantinople and in Angora are amazed at the swiftness 
of the development. Unveiled faces were seen for the 
first time in 1908, following the first revolution. To-day, 
in Angora, the chic modern wives of the members of the 
Grand National Assembly, headed by Latife Hanoum, 


216 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the accomplished and progressive wife of Mustafa Kemal 
Pasha, dress in European garb, visit the movies with their 
husbands, and have their ‘at homes’ where men and 
women, Turkish, European, and American, freely mingle. 

“In Stamboul one finds about seven in eight of the 
Moslem women going unveiled to and fro through the 
streets. Even a school-girl can go alone through the 
streets without exciting remark or attracting criticism. 
Husbands and wives walk arm-in-arm, and young men 
and women may be seen intent upon jaunts here and 
there. 

“In public vehicles the dividing curtains and partitions 
have been removed and women may sit where they 
choose, though custom is still sufficiently strong to hold 
them rather closely to the older places. There are some 
who enjoy breaking away and venturing into the hitherto 
forbidden sections.” 


When Aishat at Temour, the poetess, wrote her first 
book in 1896, the Feminist Movement in Egypt was born. 
Her poetry expressed in beautiful cadence the upward 
struggles ofa woman’ssoul. She wrotein Arabic, Persian, 
and Turkish with equal ease. Then came Kasim Amin, 
a daring writer whose first book, on The Emanctpa- 
tion of Woman, was published in 1898. For this he was 
criticized, ostracized, and considered almost a mad- 
man. Among his faithful friends was Saad Pasha 
Zaghloul, to whom was dedicated his second book, The 
New Woman, written in 1900 and rewritten in 191r. No 
doubt this book has done more than any other single 
agency in bringing about the strong movement which 
is pushing everything before it to-day. Another strong 
reformer was Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, who was exiled 
for his views on the emancipation of woman and other 
changes in the Sharia. Mansur Fahmy wrote denouncing 
the Prophet because he was not in favour of women’s 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 217 


advancement, thus making himself unpopular with the 
conservatives. 

All this time the reader must see a background of 
girls’ schools filled with Western influence. This would 
not be a true picture without that background. In 1873 
the first government girls’ school was opened, and it 
belonged to the Wakf (private religious endowment) 
of the third wife of the Khedive Ismail Pasha, who gave 
it to the Ministry. In 1908 the Lady Cromer Dispen- 
saries were opened, and, acting on this incentive, the 
Egyptian ladies formed an association which established 
at Abdin in rg1z a dispensary called, after its founder, 
“ Ain al Hayatt.”” In March 1914 Lady Byng formed 
an International Club for women in Cairo. Again, the 
‘Egyptian ladies wished a society which would be 
more exclusively for Egyptians,’”’ and in May 1914, with 
the princesses heading the movement, they formed 
“The Association of Egyptian Women for Social and 
Intellectual Improvement.” It had but one meeting ; 
then came the war. 

In 1919, after the political upheaval and the excitement 
which followed had subsided a little, women began to 
see that there were at least two ways in which they could 
help their countrywomen: by forming societies and by 
publishing magazines entirely dedicated to their own 
interests. Three societies were formed, ‘“‘ The New 
Woman,” “ The Young Woman’s Club,” and ‘‘ Al Nahda 
al Nisaiya ’’ (The Feminist Movement), with a magazine 
of its own by the same name. In joining this last- 
named society each member must dedicate herself by 
oath to the cause of virtue, patriotism, and service. 

From Iraq comes the word by a trusty messenger : 

‘“ The Woman’s Movement here is getting under weigh. 
Our latest development on these lines is a woman’s club 


218 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


which is now being organized and to which, it is said, 
all the leading Moslem ladies of Baghdad have promised 
to belong. The rules of the new association have been 
published in the local press and have aroused much 
interest and one or two heated editorials. At present, 
it may be said that the more conservative Moslems are 
marking time and watching what the next move will be 
before preparing their counter-move. 

‘““ Meanwhile, a little flutter has been occasioned by 
one of the government girls’ schools asking to be allowed 
to start a troop of Girl Guides. The Boy Scout Move- 
ment has been remarkably successful, and the infection 
has now apparently spread to the other sex. The idea 
of young girls marching through the streets and bazaars 
with arms swinging, and banners flying, has sent a thrill 
of horror through the old conservative circles. ‘ The 
young civilization of the West’ [from our girls’ schools], 
bitterly complains the Mufid, the Baghdad Arabic daily, 
‘ which is not in line with the traditions and good breeding 
of our women, is slowly poisoning the nation. The Girl 
Guide Movement is wholly alien to our ideas, and in a 
country which has been backward for five hundred 
years these innovations are inadvisable. The Minister 
of Education ought to draw up a curriculum of instruction 
for the girls’ schools which is in keeping with our beliefs 
and traditions and in consonance with the noble honour 
of the Arab people.’ 

“ And so the battle rages. But, in view of the success 
of the Boy Scout Movement, one feels that it is extremely 
likely that the girls will get their way.”’ 


The veil, which for many years was worn by Christian 
women, is now rapidly disappearing in most of the cities. 
The sight of unveiled Christian Egyptian ladies has 
become so common that Moslem ladies may appear in 
the same way without attracting attention or criticism. 

Ever since their establishment, the American Mission 
girls’ schools in Egypt have held their commencements 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 219 


without any reference to harem customs. No screens 
or curtains separate the large audiences of men and 
women ; princesses, pashas’ wives, mothers and sisters 
of the “sweet girl graduate”’ sit in plain sight of the 
princes, pashas, beys, and ministers, fathers and brothers. 
Here, with face unveiled, the young woman who is to 
receive her diploma takes her place upon a raised platform 
with her fellow students and performs her part in the 
programme. Because this is an established custom for 
this particular day in her life, all accept it as right and 
proper, with never a word of criticism. 
A writer from Syria says : 


“There is a very marked Woman’s Movement in 
Syria, including Moslem, Druze, and Christian women. 
A large society of women of different religious faiths 
meets once a month in Beirfit to discuss matters of 
interest to women. The president is a devoted Protestant, 
and the society was started by Syrian Protestant women. 

“The women still wear the veil, and seem to be stricter 
in this particular than in other Moslem countries. This 
summer, however, young Moslem women in the Christian 
villages in the Lebanon went about everywhere with 
their veils back, carrying sticks and walking freely with 
an athletic stride. One young Moslem woman, smart 
and educated, is taking her freshman college year at the 
American Girls’ School in Beirft. She hopes to go to 
America next year and study medicine; then she plans 
to come back and work for the emancipation of other 
Moslem women.” 


In Palestine the women seem not much interested in 
the political situation, and are more exclusive than in 
some other countries. From one of the Christian girls’ 
schools we have the following : 


“Our girls attend the religious services gladly. The 
brothers and fathers are liberal, also some of the relatives, 


220 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


particularly those who are educated. There is decided 
progress in the homes, which are much cleaner ; the food 
is better cooked, and the general living on a much higher 
level.”’ 


In our information from physicians in Eastern lands 
we find but two bright pictures. One, the readiness of 
the women to come to the hospitals, and to bring their 
girls, to listen to the word of the doctors, and even to 
submit willingly to necessary operations; and the other, 
brighter still, is the relief which promises to come from 
the distinct movement to raise the age of marriage. The 
background in all their writings is so black that in some 
cases one can but faintly see the outline. Dare we insert 
one dark picture here in this hopeful chapter? If we do, 
let it be from the pen of that great-hearted Bishop Linton, 
of Persia, who has given us his book of wondrously clear 
Persian sketches ?: 


“Those shadows! They are so intensely deep that it 
hurts even to attempt to sketch them in here. Some 
cannot be put in, not at any rate by a man. Here is 
what a hospital nurse in Persia once wrote; only, perhaps, 
it would be better if you would read it when you are 
alone. You may want to kneel down and pray. It is 
too unutterably sad to be read and lightly forgotten. 
The part that is not written is the saddest. 

‘““* Just for the day or two petted and feasted, pleased 
and decked with bridal robes—a happy little queen. 
The next? ... May God forgive!... 

‘““* Her mother brought the little child to see if foreign 
skill could even then restore the little trembling frame ; 
knowing that he who owned her could, if he chose, cast 
her out as a useless, broken toy—divorced, dishonoured, 
and by all despised. 

“A little child! I saw her as she waited in the 


1 The Rt. Rev, J, H. Linton, Persian Sketches, London, 1923, 
pp. 118-21. 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 221 


C.M.S. hospital, and never can I forget her piteous cries, 
the horror staring from her fear-glazed eyes, from which 
all childishness had fled. She crouched, like some wild, 
tortured animal, trust in everyone, all childish hopes, 
forever gone. A quivering, outraged form; a broken, 
wounded life; a terror-stricken heart! Surely that 
was enough for any child to bear. No, not enough ; 
for still that mother (was she worthy of the name ?) 
refused to promise that for two short years a time of 
respite should be given to the girl for healing of the 
body and mind. 

“ “So from the hospital that little one was borne, with 
piteous cries and frantic pleas for help, back to that 
husband in whose heart was not one drop of pity, back to 
a life far worse than death. A little child of nine!’ 

“ And now it is the hour of prayer; I listen as that 
husband approaches his God and I hear him say, ‘O 
God, the merciful, the compassionate’!!! There is 
clearly something wrong somewhere ! 

“Suppose that it were your little girl of nine! If 
you are a parent I think you will understand. ... 

“One day a Persian boy came to me and said: ‘I 
wish, sir, you would come to our house and help us.’ 
I asked what he wanted me todo. Hesaid: ‘ You know 
my little sister?’ Idid. She was a little girl apparently 
seven or eight years of age, just like any English girl of 
that age, bright, happy, joyous. He went on: ‘ Well, 
she is to be married next week ; I wish you would come 
and see my father and try to stop it.’ 

““T went to the father, and spent a whole afternoon 
pleading and arguing with him. In the end he turned 
to me and said: ‘She is eight years old, and it is time 
she was married!’ And the boy burst in with, ‘ She is 
not yet eight years old!’ 

“So she was married—to a man of thirty-five, whom 
she had never yet seen! And all the light was darkened, 
all the joy and innocence of childhood were blotted out. 
And ‘ she is not yet eight years old....’ 


222 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


“But here, again, is a light across the shadows. I 
want to guard against misconception. There is a growing 
feeling against child marriage, and I know of a small 
society among Persian women whose members are 
pledged not to give their own daughters in marriage till 
they are sixteen years old. Old schoolboys, too, have 
told me that they will neither marry a child wife nor 
give their own children in marriage till they are grown 
up. But, with the example of their Prophet before them, 
the struggle is an uphill one. Nevertheless, the social 
problem in Persia is beginning to cut deep into the hearts 
of her thinking men and women, and herein is great 
hope for the future. The best of her people are asking 
whether there is any solution, and, if so, where it lies.” 


Just here it is of great interest to note that recent 
legislation in different Eastern countries will greatly 
benefit women and girls when put into execution, and 
it will grant privileges of justice and equality of which 
we never dreamed a few years ago. This is notably true 
of Turkey. In Egypt also there has been like progress. 
On March 16, 1923, at a meeting of ladies at the house 
of Madame (or Hoda) Charaawi Pasha, it was decided 
to form a new society, to be called ‘‘ The Egyptian Femi- 
nist Union for Woman Suffrage.’’ Nine points were 
drawn up as the definite aims of the union, and presented 
at the International Woman’s Convention by Hoda 
Charaawi in Rome, and later in the woman’s delegation 
in Paris. They were then presented to serve as a basis 
for laws in the new Constitution. The nine points are as 
follows : 


1. To raise the moral and intellectual level of woman 
in order to realize her political and social equalities 
with men from the point of view of laws and manners. 

2. To ask for free access to higher schools for all 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 223 


girls desiring to study, and equal privileges to be given 
with the boys and young men. 

3. To reform customs relating to the arranging of 
marriages so as to allow the two parties to know each 
other before betrothal. 

4. To reform laws in regard to marriage so that the 
real spirit of the Koran might be interpreted, and thus 
preserve woman from the injustice caused by bigamy 
exercised without reason, and from repudiation taking 
place without serious motive. 

5. By laws to limit the age of consent to marriage for 
a young girl to sixteen years. 

6. To open active propaganda for public hygiene, 
particularly with reference to child welfare. 

7. To encourage virtue and to fight against im- 
morality. 

8. To fight against superstition and certain eustoms 
which do not accord with reason, even though mentioned 
in the Hadith (like the Zar, Charms, etc.). 

9g. To open propaganda in the Press on the aims of the 
society. 


Already five of these points have been under con- 
sideration in Parliament. It will be seen that these 
aims cover a comprehensive field: intellectual and moral 
equality, education, marriage reforms, hygiene and 
sanitation, and a battle against superstition and im- 
morality. There is a voiceless reproach in these moderate 
demands plainly stated—ghosts of old sorrows seem to 
lurk in them. 

Through the help of the League of Nations, Bishop 
Linton, of Persia, was able to secure laws for the benefit 
of the little carpet-weavers. These reforms have more 
than an indirect influence upon the health and happiness 
of the poor wee mothers of that land. These laws, 
especially No. 4 and No. 5, are significant: (4) that the 
minimum age of workers in the factories be eight years 


224 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


for boys and ten for girls; (5) that no children under 
fourteen work more than eight hours a day. These 
laws prevent the bodies of the little girls, who formerly 
were married when only eight or nine years of age, from 
becoming deformed. 

Even from Chinese Turkistan around Kashgar, we 
have the word that there is a little forward movement 
in the life of women and girls. They have begun to 
be tidier in person and in their home, and they really 
seem to love to work. They are more self-respecting, 
and are beginning to thirst for knowledge. The custom 
of giving away their small girls in marriage is slowly 
disappearing under the influence of Christianity. The 
missionary adds : 

“Our Turkistan women have the liberty of joining 
dervish sisterhoods and of going to these meetings, but 
otherwise they have no religious or social liberty and are 
not advanced sufficiently to care anything about politics.”’ 


In answer to the question, Is polygamy still the rule 
among all classes, and what kind of family life is preva- 
lent ? there come answers varied as the different countries 
of the Near East. 

In Turkey, as might be expected, we get the word: 


‘Polygamy is practically prohibited. We are inclined 
to believe that it is much less common than is supposed. | 
Practical economic difficulties arise in carrying out 
polygamy; also its unpopularity among the women 
themselves is probably a deterrent factor. But the 
easy divorce laws result in something approximating to 
polygamy.”’ 

In Egypt, polygamy is practically a thing of the past 
among the educated and high-class Moslems. But among 
the simple people in the villages one finds that the custom 
still prevails. Here there are many plural marriages 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 225 


because it is easy to take on another wife when economic 
conditions allow it. Perhaps one-third of the men of 
the peasant class either have more than one legal wife 
or at least are living with more than one woman. The 
desire to have a big family of children is still common 
with them. A man’s idea of affluence is to marry another 
wife as soon as he has sold his cotton, and until education 
reaches the class in which this view prevails polygamy 
will still hold sway in Egypt. 

If the law of marriage now under consideration is 
actually passed it will be a serious matter for Moslem 
social life, if not for the religious prestige of Islam, which 
is most sensitive to any attack on the position of women, 
simply because it is conscious of the weakness of its 
position. Hence the progress made shows victories 
which at first do not appear to Western eyes. 

From several sources in Persia come answers which 
show that, as regards polygamy and family life, conditions 
are just the reverse of those in Egypt. There is no 
strongly organized movement toward reform. 


“In all wealthy houses polygamy is prevalent. This 
may not cause as much sorrow as one could expect, owing 
to the absence of higher ideals. On the other hand, 
in one chief’s household the head wife went through 
agonies of jealousy and grief because she could not get 
her husband to hold the ideal of monogamy which she, 
independent of Christian thought, cherished.” 


“Among the poor people one wife is much more 
usual. But this does not do away with the evils of 
divorce and temporary marriages. Family life under 
these conditions cannot reach a very high standard, 
and yet it is surprising what a lot of family affection 
there is. According to the religious law, girls are of 


1 See The Moslem World, July, 1923, p. 309. 
16 


226 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


marriageable age at nine, but among the more en- 
lightened people there is a feeling against this, and many 
girls do not marry until fourteen or fifteen.” 


From Syria and Palestine we have the reliable in- 
formation that, although there is much heart-breaking 
complaint against the marriage and easy divorce system, 
nothing as yet has been attempted by the women in the 
way of petitions to change the code. A missionary 
who has lived and worked long in Syria says: 


“ Polygamy is not prevalent, but successive divorce 
is appallingly common. I know one sixteen-year-old 
girl who was married three times and divorced twice 
within a year. She had been married and divorced once 
before I knew her. Of course, under such conditions 
there is almost nothing of what we can call family life.”’ 


From Arabia we have the word of a high government 
official and of a missionary who has spent nearly half a 
century in that land. The latter says: 


“While polygamy is rare, frequent marriage and 
divorce are prevalent. One man who had been married 
and divorced eighteen times brought his young wife 
of fifteen to the doctor for examination. When the 
result of the examination showed that she was not in 
fit condition to become a mother, the man wished to 
divorce her. Since I left he had divorced his nine- 
teenth and married his twentieth wife.” 


From Turkistan it is said : 

“ Polygamy is the rule only among those who can afford 
to have more than one wife at a time. The family life 
is patriarchal, but divorces are very common.”’ 


From the Sudan and Abyssinia we find that poly- 


gamy is still the rule. Quoting from one who is perhaps 
the best authority from the Sudan we have : 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NEAR EAST 227 


“ There is an existing state of things in social life that 
makes family life, as we understand it, an impossibility. 
Then, too, there is the keeping of concubines and their 
children that makes anything but the herding of women 
and children impossible. It is not a family, but a flock, 
a herd, to which the women must submit without choice. 
This will probably give way eventually with the entire 
abolition of slavery.”’ 


From Iraq, the new Mesopotamia, we find the same 
brave fight going on against polygamy as we have in 
Turkey and Egypt. Perhaps this last country to awaken 
shall be the first in attainment. 

From Dr. Kelly Giffen we have the summing up: 


“ The psychology of the situation is not easily under- 
stood, but the explanation which seems most reasonable 
is, first, that the Moslems of the Sudan, and perhaps of 
the whole Moslem world, have been longing for something 
more satisfying than the Koran and the religion of Mo- 
hammed bring into their lives. This longing probably 
existed quite generally before the war, as we know that 
it didin many cases. Then came the war, and there was 
a releasing of all previous bonds in religious and moral 
conduct. I make no attempt to explain what it was 
that broke these bonds, but certainly we must recognize 
that there is a new liberty and the people have a new 
vision. It may not be the one we wish for them, but 
it is a new vision, and indicates a turning from their 
age-old beliefs, either for better or for worse. This 
brings new opportunity, and increased responsibility to 
lift Christ into the field of the vision of the soul which 
longs and looks for something but knows not what. But 
we know it is Christ.” 





MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
ISLAMIC WORLD—NORTH-WEST AFRICA 


BY 
I. LILIAS TROTTER, 
Honorary Secretary to the Algiers Mission Band 


UNE HEL ILE SHY 


PAO ELAM: 


S Prueiye, PARR 


t v) ' 


% i 


i] f 





CHAPTER XV 


MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
ISLAMIC WORLD—NORTH-WEST AFRICA 


ELEVEN or twelve words, carrying a dim sense of a needy 
throng—the title means little more to those who have 
never crossed the Mediterranean ; it carries no pictures. 
And as in our nursery days the pictures come first, then 
their meaning, so come and look at a few of them. 

Turn over two or three pages of the picture-book. 
The first is a long blank wall in a city street, unbroken 
save for a barred slit here and there, and an arched door- 
way, roofed with painted rafters, red and green. Within 
is a dark vestibule with stone seats, tiled to the vaulting 
in quaint colouring. Then another door, which may 
not be opened by any of the men residents above the 
age of ten or twelve, without a warning cough. That 
cough enables all the women to fly to their rooms except 
those of the family of the entering male. 

If you are a woman you may walk straight in with 
the one sentence, ‘‘ O mistresses of the house!’”’ Then 
you are in a court, marble-tiled, recessed with Moorish 
arches and twisted pillars. Grouped together or scattered 
here and there are delicate-featured women, in robes of 
every tint, egg-shell-blue and silver, apricot and pale- 
green, trying to forget yesterday’s sorrows and _ to- 
morrow’s fears in laughter and gossip, as they work at 


their household tasks. 
231 


232 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Then turn the page, and up and away through the 
fig-trees and the dim peacock-colour of the prickly-pear 
hedges, you will see a troop of mountain-women swinging 
down the path, lifting a hand now and then to steady the 
earthen water-jars on their heads, and draped like Roman 
matrons, in flowing crimson of woollen material, hanging 
from the shoulders on heavy silver brooches. The little 
girls who trot alongside have imitated the brooches by 
means of a bit of orange-peel, with a mimosa-thorn 
thrust through as fastening. 

Turn another page, and, far back, where the mountain 
land dips to the desert, you will find the womenkind in 
mud houses, proportioned like palaces, with palm trunks 
for their pillars. Women in indigo cotton robes are 
silhouetted against the tan walls. A touch of pea-green 
or orange gleams here and there, and a glitter of silver 
from massive amulets slung on the breast. Dear coffee- 
coloured babies in one scanty garment tumble about the 
sand floor. 

Out and away once more, where the palms scatter in 
a thin line, you will find the tent-woman, heavy-featured 
and dense as compared with the others limited in her 
horizon to the little camp that is her world, and with 
hardly a chance of hearing of another one, even of the 
earthly type. Out and away again, in regions ever more 
remote, these Bedouin live and die. 

Multiply all these groups by the hundred thousand 
and add as many other contrasting ones, and you still 
will not have seen “ the women of North-West Africa.’’ 
They number, so far as they can be numbered, well over 
7,000,000 from Tripoli to Morocco, including the Sahara. 

Athwart these lands is being driven the plough of 
Europe. The regions of the inaccessible shrink year by 
year. Autos thread the defiles and climb the plateaux 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 2338 


to link the markets, the camel sways bewildered from 
the jarring Citroén car that breaks up the peace of the 
sand-dunes. It will all serve, in due time, we believe, 
in opening highways for God’s service. And it may well 
be that this ploughing, as it touches the lives of the girls, 
will bring the same result. 

This upheaval is as yet in its initial stage, and, as with 
the work of the literal ploughshare, it is not to the outward 
beautifying of the field. The gorgeous wild-flower 
colouring of the East is destroyed and buried, and a 
curious crop of anomalies tends to spring up in its place. 
The former sense of native demureness is crossed with 
the first seeds of liberty ; the roots of superstition twine 
still under the surface, and threaten to strangle the new 
ideas of a universe that is governed by law, not by demons. 
These and a dozen other incongruous elements go along 
with the hat and pinafore that surmount the old-time 
robe of the go-to-school child. 

Weare truly glad she is learning toread. Her husband 
of the future may or may not be glad that she knows how 
to write ; we remember cases where such knowledge is 
feared, for the troubles of the new home can no longer 
be hidden from father and brother as of yore. We hope 
that the up-turned soil of her mind may yield a harvest 
in days to come, but at present she is in a transition 
stage that is full of risks, with centuries behind her of 
womankind kept in leash and now being suddenly freed 
in the midst of coast towns where the worst elements of 
East and West flourish together. 

We are only at the very outset of the problem, so we 
cannot as yet judge its issues. Before the war scarcely 
a girl obtained any education; now, on all sides, ex- 
cellently organized schools are being opened in Algeria 
and Tunisia, and others are being started in Morocco. 


234 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


With true discernment of the make-up of the little Eastern 
maidens, mental training is given only in the morning 
hours, and the afternoon brings rest to the unaccustomed 
brain by employment in needle-craft and weaving. 

In the inland towns, where the streets are less full 
of danger than in the coast cities, our workers feel that 
the immense awakening of latent possibilities in the 
keen-witted young lives more than counterbalances all 
that can be said against the venture. 

Farther south, Islam still holds practically undisputed 
sway, and the girl is kept in permanent ignorance of 
anything beyond the household lore that has been passed 
down from mother to daughter since the days of Eve. 
In deference to their official superiors, the Arab postman 
and policeman and two or three others will send their 
daughters to the newly opened girls’ school, and there 
it stops. The highest estimate of the literacy of woman 
(putting its standard at reading and writing, and including 
French education as well as Arabic) would be about 
2 per cent. in Algeria, less in Tunisia, and almost nil 
in Morocco. But whatever results have been attained 
are the achievements of the last ten years only. 

The two factors that have worked towards this sudden 
stride have been, first, governors of the land who have 
laid themselves out to meet the needs of the natives 
on far more understanding lines than of old, and, second, 
a consciousness of those needs awakened in the native 
men by contact with Europe during the war. Young 
Arabs and Kabyles in large numbers went off to the 
fighting line or to help in the work that lay behind the 
trenches. Even now, if you cross to France, you will 
find the decks thronged with them, and, if you watch 
through the last half-hour before landing, you will 
see in Marseilles harbour the strange sight of one red 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA = 235 


fez after another flung into the water and left floating 
there, to be replaced by the cap that will make its owner 
indistinguishable from the European. What this means, 
as a symbol of riddance from the cramp of Islam, those 
will realize who know all that the fez implies to dwellers 
in this land. 

First and foremost, the vision of Europe has brought 
a dawning desire for changed conditions in domestic 
life. The North African has seen there the civilized 
home, with husband and wife sharing their interests 
and their friendships, the girls in free enjoyment of their 
teens, the growing lads still sheltered instead of being 
flung out into the pollution of the streets. The Algerian 
native does not contemplate any such upheaval of social 
conditions, of course, but he would like a wife with some 
outlook on this new world with which he has become 
familiar—some intercourse beyond the scandal of the 
compound and the alternate coaxing and screaming 
about new finery and leave to go to a féte. 

So, before long, the demand for wives with the elements 
of education will create a supply in such regions of the 
country as are in touch with the European shore. The 
young schoolmasters and the pensioned non-commis- 
sioned officers of the native regiments share this new 
outlook towards woman’s education, though in their 
case it is through a less direct contact with France. 

It is among these surroundings that we expect the 
lead to be given. The bourgeois class and that of 
officialdom above it do not seem to us at present aroused 
on the subject. At any rate, their womenkind take slack 
interest in the movement towards liberty in the Near 
East. Egypt and Turkey are in disfavour—the former 
among the authorities on account of its subversive ten- 
dencies, the latter among the Arabs through ancient 


236 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


tyranny—and their influence does not tell. The high 
tide of progress in these houses of the well-to-do seems 
to have reached only the mark of reading French news- 
papers and novels, with an occasional taxi-drive, incog- 
nito, in French costume, and in exceptional cases a 
journey to Paris with the husband under the same 
conditions. No leader has ever arisen among them 
suggesting anything further; so the trend towards 
progress seems likely to arise from the class below. 

The land is peopled by two different kindreds: the 
well-known Arabs and the mysterious aborigines, Berbers 
as they are generally named, whom the Arab cornered 
when he overran the coast, but never conquered. Cor- 
nered they are still, in certain districts of mountain and 
desert, with an origin unknown, a tongue unrelated to 
any other, and an industry and independence that stand 
in sharp contrast with the lazy easy-going of the Arab 
usurper. In the plains the two groups intermingle. 

Those most in evidence of the Berber races are the 
Kabyles, in possession of the hill country that borders 
the Bay of Algiers to the east. Here alone do we come 
in contact with their women. Another detachment of 
their tribes inhabits the Aurés Mountains, near Biskra, 
and is known to us only by photographs, showing stately 
creatures with a massive outline of brow and chin. 
Farther south, among the Beni M’zab, no woman is 
allowed to stir from the tribal cities, and not an in- 
dividual of her sex has ever reached the northern towns. 
Farther still, in the recesses of the desert, lies another 
branch, the Touaregs, and here the innate forcibleness 
of the Berber women has thrown to the winds the lightly 
borne yoke of Islam, and they keep the archives in quaint 
square characters, bring up the children, sit on the 
councils, obtain respect for the unmarried girls under the 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA = 2387 


soubriquet of “‘ little queens,” while their men, in black 
muffler veils, and on their running camels, go out to 
pillage and to fight. The first gleam of God’s dawn has 
not reached these women yet. 

But the Kabyle woman we know well, and from the 
grandmother, her white hair dyed carrot-red with henna, 
to the smallest specimen of girlhood, forcefulness marks 
them all. A woman has more than once held a brother- 
hood together during the interregnum caused by her 
husband’s death: Lella Khadija, Kabylia’s snow-crested 
peak, is named after one of these. 

Material for Christ is surely there, and it is being 
steadily sought, for the land of the Kabyles is the best 
worked for God’s Kingdom along these coasts. It re- 
mains to be seen how they might rise to leadership if 
they had right of way, though numerically they are far 
below the Arabs. 

As yet the women, taking them all in all, are queens 
in slavery. <A feast is being held in the stone hut, and 
the men sit shoulder to shoulder round the wide wooden 
footstool that serves for table; the bowl of semolina 
is crowned by a stewed fowl. [From this the neck and 
claws are thrown to the woman huddled in the corner. 
That is her legitimate portion. She has fed the chicken 
with her own scraps; she has modelled the bowl with 
its quaint criss-cross of orange and black and red colours 
pounded from stones that she knows. She has rolled and 
steamed the raw grain for hours. So be it: she shall 
have the neck and the claws, 

Well for her if contempt such as this were all: it is 
but the drifting straw that marks the undertow; and 
when we know something of the force of the stream of 
injustice against these rock-like characters, we wonder 
that life in their villages can pass as quietly as it does. 


238 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


“Her general make-up is strong through suffering,’’ 
writes one who has passed half a life-time in those 
villages. ‘“‘ Her native humour and brightness come 
touchingly to the surface, but tears lie just beneath.” 

For the tribal code that frames her destiny is con- 
siderably more drastic than the Koranic law of the Arabs. 
Here are a few of its pronouncements. kemember, as 
you read them, that the so-called ““ woman ”’ may be a 
child of nine or ten. 


“The Kabyle woman has no hereditary right.’’ ‘She 
has no right of property except to the clothes she wears.”’ 

“In marriage she is sold by her father, or, failing him, 
by his nearest male relative, who receives the price.’ 

“She has no consent to formulate. Marriage can be 
imposed on her even by force by the man having authority 
over her.”’ 

“The husband may repudiate his wife when he pleases 
without being obliged to formulate a reason.’’ ‘“‘ She has 
not the right to repudiate her husband,” and in no case, 
under any pretext, can she claim divorce from the law. 
She may leave her married home, however, and take 
refuge with her father if he consents to receive her. 
She then declares herself in a “state of insurrection ”’ 
against her husband. 

“The Kabyle husband can, in repudiating his wife, 
declare that he ‘sets a price on her head.’ In this . 
case, the woman, although repudiated, cannot marry 
another man unless the latter pays first to the former 
husband this integral sum, as ransom. Meanwhile she 
is ‘ put out of circulation.’ ”’ 

“The children belong to the father. During marriage 
the mother attends to them. If she is put away she 
becomes a stranger to them.”’ 

‘As part of the marriage ceremony, the husband beats 
the young bride over the threshold, in token that she is 
now under his power.”’ 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 2389 


““ The husband feeds and clothes his wife as he pleases. 
The complaint of the woman is not admitted.” 

‘If a married man dies, his wife becomes part of his 
succession. She is transmitted with it. She remains 
“hung to his death.’ ”’ 


The tragedies of these mountains go unbroken into 
the dim depths of the past. Will a break in them come 
now? It may be, for a brave French magistrate here 
and there, and an answering sense of chivalry awaking 
in some of the younger Kabyles, have produced successful 
appeal to law more than once of late. 

Meantime, among both Kabyle and Arab womanhood 
(and, even among the latter, this begins in the early 
teens) one of the most intense needs is that shelter-homes 
and rescue-homes should be opened from end to end of 
the land for the shattered young lives that result from 
ruthless marriage and divorce and tossing from household 
to household that we cannot call homes. No such 
shelter exists to our knowledge, and the cry of one little 
lost sheep after another, as it slides down the moral 
precipice, must reach the ear of the Good Shepherd. 
Surely He will soon be calling some to go with Him “ to 
seek and to save’ from among them. 

Polygamy cannot be said to be the rule. It is not 
principle that tells against it, but expense, for often the 
Wives, especially in the coast towns, require each to have 
a separate establishment. Probably in the shopkeeper 
class two wives would be the common thing, and in 
the classes above this plurality would be the rule rather 
than the exception, sometimes extending to three or 
four. In the houses of the well-to-do, and in the interior, 
it is usual for all to live under one roof with separate 
apartments. As to family life, in the villages, especially 
in Kabylia, it is at its lowest ebb, men, women, children, 


240 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


poultry, and even sometimes sheep and goats sharing 
one hut. In the towns, among the poorer classes, one 
room is still the rule, and often with bad over-crowding. 
Especially among the Kabyles we have known of as 
many as eighteen in one room, four or five families, each 
of which has its own corner. Where a whole house is 
owned, it is generally shared in patriarchal fashion with 
sons and their wives, the whole being usually under the 
dominance of the old grandmother, who rules the house 
forcibly and resists innovations of any kind. 

In the sorrows of their lot, the Kabyle women and 
the Arab women meet, and they share the darkness 
of mind and spirit of which we shall speak anon. In 
character they differ widely. The Arab woman is 
vivacious, affectionate, supple, often vusée—seeking to 
go round a difficult position that the Kabyle women 
would set out to take by storm—marvellously in- 
telligent, when we look at the age-long limitations of 
her past. 

The Arab woman does not strike one as so tragic as 
the Kabyle, for the Arab has adapted herself comfortably 
to the creed which the Kabyle feels was forced on her 
people by the sword of old. The Arab toys with her 
chains, and is proud to be secluded. The power of 
fatalism, so deeply rooted in Islam, helps her to live on 
with her heart buried in the graves of her babies—often 
laid there through the foolish love that refused them 
nothing—or torn over the wretchedness of the daughter, 
concerning whose marriage she had spent months of 
intrigue ; or broken over the waywardness of the son of 
whom she was so proud when he first showed his manli- 
ness by beating her. She cannot reason about these 
things—cause and effect are in an unrecognized realm ; 
she smothers and stamps all questioning under the fiat, 


LIFE OF WOMEN: -NORTH-WEST AFRICA 241 


“It is decreed,’’ and goes on mechanically preparing her 
own woes over again. 

The religious life of the Arab woman, as you follow her 
into the inland districts, becomes more and more marked 
by a crude intensity. It looks like fanaticism; it is 
really concentration. She will take you by the shoulders, 
in the desert villages, and cry ‘ Shehedi, shehedi,”’ that 
you may be induced to repeat the formula of witness to 
Mohammed which she believes to be the passport into 
heaven. She is interested in you; she likes you; surely 
she should win you to go there too. Beyond that, 
she knows nothing but that she should fast throughout 
the Ramadhan moon, and this she does with touching 
faithfulness. Where the sense of spiritual need is numb 
or dead, these two elements, representing faith and 
works, are her pride, as a good Moslem. Where a spark 
is awake she holds on intensely to these same two points, 
not daring to let them go, for she has nothing more. 
Is that her fault, or ours ? 

It is only where the brotherhoods of mystics hold 
sway, in mountain and desert, that the women seem to 
get any farther in dim seeking for God. We are only 
just beginning to get into contact with these movements 
on the women’s side, though we knew that certain orders 
had organized sisterhoods attached. <A glimpse of a tiny 
zikrv of women in the desert, a day spent in the mother- 
house of a sisterhood in a holy city, a friendship with a 
beautiful ‘‘ Marabouta’’ soul in the mountains, who 
gave herself to God in gratitude for restoration from 
illness, and spends her time in comforting and helping 
others—these come within a year’s experiences. They 
only make us feel our ignorance of the unseen brooding 
of the Spirit over this chaos of darkness. 

When it comes to the cities and the inland towns, the 

17 


242 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


religious life of the women becomes diluted, so to speak. 
There is now, for the most part, no intensity at all. 
The social element predominates at the cemetery ren- 
dezvous on Fridays and still more at the “ Ziara’”’ pil- 
grimage to the Saint’s tomb where the country-side 
gathers periodically. Nothing more is expected till she 
reaches the age of forty ; then, if so minded, she begins 
to tell her beads and to attend the mosque services in 
the women’s gallery in preparation for the world to 
come. 

Even then, as before, there is no thought of religion 
having any bearing on daily life; love as “ the fulfilling 
of the law ’’—neighbour-love in its true sense—has little 
place. They give to each other, it is true, only it is on 
a co-operative system. ‘“‘I gave her three duros at her 
baby’s seventh-day feast; may the sea be upon her 
if she does not the same by me at my son’s wedding.”’ 
And the quick wits and idle days and complicated house- 
holds all serve as tinder to the Southern fire of jealousy, 
and intrigues are kindled without end until no one can 
trust her neighbour. They become used to playing a 
double game all round till a curious duality of mind 
and character becomes a part of their make-up. 

It is only the tender mother-love that shines true and 
clear, though so ignorantly applied that the little ones 
will be exposed to moral risks such as to make innocence 
practically impossible after babyhood. All the time 
the mother will be torturing herself with fears concerning | 
the invisible demon powers that she imagines are making 
for their ruin. 

If we are asked what is the prevailing background in 
the heart of a native woman of these coasts, from child- 
hood to old age, and in every rank and condition, we 
should say it is the grip of fear. There are fears well 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 248 


founded, and enough of them—the fear of her husband’s 
anger and consequent divorce, fear of the day when old 
age will bring contempt and neglect, fear of the power 
of venomous tongues around her and their effect on the 
mother-in-law who grudges her the position in which she 
herself has placed her, or on the autocratic grandmother 
who dominates the household. But these are less terrible 
than the haunting of the charms and spells that may be 
thrown over her and the untoward chance that may 
arouse the wrath of the demons towards her and her 
children. We know a young wife who is being delibe- 
rately and purposely driven into insanity by the constant 
suggestion that it is threatening her through the powers 
of darkness. 

So much has been written of late concerning the 
prevalence of animism in Islam that there is no need to 
relate instances. A chapter could easily be filled with 
them, but we are dealing now with the broad outlines 
of the Arab woman’s life, not with details, and there 
is yet more to be said about these outlines. 

We have traced the shadows of her character, but have 
not told what a lovable thing she is, and what powers 
of mind and character have lain dormant through the 
bleak centuries of Islam, awaiting God’s spring. Bright- 
ness and endurance of life-long injury and wrong, powers 
of hard work and patient self-sacrifice, are all there, some- 
times latent, often visible, and the girls, if they had the 
chance of being trained, might be developed as keen 
students or as good housewives, with a civilized standard 
of cleanliness, infant welfare, and health culture. All 
these are impossible while Moslem rule prevails and while | 
girls are shut away at twelve or thirteen for the short 
interval before marriage. Their powers of being and 
doing are stunted past recall in the stiff soil of Islam. 


244 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


So we rejoice in the breaking up that lets in God’s free 
light and air. 

Let us hold the simile clearly in our minds, however. 
The ploughshare is one thing, the seed is another. Civili- 
zation, education, the trend towards liberty—all serve 
to prepare the way with their sharp thrusts into the 
age-long wilderness ; but they are not the seed, they have 
no vitalizing power for man’s spiritual being. “ He 
that soweth good seed is the Son of Man.” 

That sowing by the Son of Man through His servants 
began only a generation ago, and in these lands, constitut- 
ing for the most part a French colony or protectorate, 
the seed-basket of hospital and school work has been in 
little use. Direct evangelism is wide open, and only 
limited by the time and strength of the few workers ; 
industrial effort and hostels are supplementing it, and 
already the first green shoots are coming through. 

All is as yet in that initial stage. ‘“* First the blade,” 
and the fear is always that, by reason of the fallow 
ground of Islam around, it will stay there, undeveloped. 
The women converts, unless they can be married to 
Christian husbands, must continue secret. disciples. 
Each one belongs, in the eye of the law, to her nearest 
male relative, and, if he is still a Moslem, he will not 
dream of the disgrace of letting her stand out for Christ 
in his home. Throughout the country, around the 
mission stations, there are souls whose trust and allegiance 
have been transferred to Him, and who dimly try to 
please Him; but the stages of “the ear,” and “ after 
that the full corn in the ear,” await the time when God’s 
power reaches the men. The future of the women is 
bound together spiritually as well as socially with that 
of their fathers, brothers, husbands. The colporteur 
who brings the books to the men and the boy-lover who 


LIFE OF WOMEN: NORTH-WEST AFRICA 245 


wins a hearing from the lads, are steadily helping on the 
day of grace for the women. 

While we wait for that dawn, who can tell what can 
be done by mere presence, bringing them into touch 
with Christ’s love shed through human hearts and lives. 
To “‘lay down ”’ for their sakes time and strength and 
inclination, every day and all day long—that is the only 
way in which we can show Him to them in a fashion that 
they can understand. “He saved others, Himself 
He cannot save’’—the highest missionary calling lies 
in a faint, far-off reflection of those words. 

And when the soil has been softened and prepared 
by earthly love, the vision of Christ crucified may break 
in far and wide on the men and women of North-West 
Africa, awaking the life-springs that will work on through 
blade and ear into a multiplying power around them 
that will bring the sheaves at last. 


PE Hear 
F. Vl 


Ai bai 





MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
ISLAMIC WORLD—INDIA 


BY 
RUTH E. ROBINSON, B.A., M.A., 
Editor, “‘ The Treasure Chest,’ Bangalore 


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CHAPTER XVI 


MOVEMENTS IN THE LIFE OF WOMEN IN THE 
ISLAMIC WORLD—INDIA 


THOUGH it is sometimes dangerous to generalize about 
conditions in so large a country as India, there is on 
the whole surprising agreement regarding the changes 
that are taking place in the life of Moslem women in 
all parts of the land. Prolonged contact with England’s 
civilization, subtle currents of influence, pressure of new 
ideas—all these have produced a restlessness, a vague 
discontent, and a desire for escape into a world that fills 
the mind and heart. The war, the Caliphate agitation, 
the Nationalist Movement in India, the emancipation of 
women in Egypt and Turkey, have penetrated to the 
zenanas, and have given the women an interest in a, 
world outside their own. 

One of the noticeable features of recent years is the 
awakening of the Moslems to a consciousness of the dis- 
tance they lag behind the other communities. Especially 
startling is their illiteracy. For Christians the pro- 
portion of literates is 32 per cent. among men and 18 
per cent. among women; for Hindus it is 15 per cent. 
among men and 14 per cent. among women; but for 
Moslems it is only 8 per cent. among men and a half 
of one per cent. among women. In this matter the 
traditional Islamic prejudice against women’s education 

249 


250 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


is a determining factor. The Census Report of 1921 
contains an admirable statement on this point *: 


“Though the number of literate women throughout 
India is still small and their proportion very low... the 
fact remains that there has been steady advance in the 
education of girls in the last twenty years. Literacy 
is an indication rather of culture than of civilization, 
and, while there is nothing inherent in the Indian tradition 
that should prevent the development of the education 
of the male population, the case is. . . different in regard 
to women. The spirit both of Brahmanism and of Islam 
is distinctly opposed to the education of the female sex ; 
and there is little doubt that the women of India owe the 
erowing facilities offered them for acquiring literacy 
to the influence on the male section of the community 
of foreign standards and ideals. That the education 
of women is unnecessary, unorthodox, and dangerous, 
is still the standpoint of a large section of Indian society. 
It is still the predominant attitude of the Mohammedans 
of the better class, though, in the case of their men, the 
ability to read and write is. ..a religious obligation. ... 
The scheme of life which orthodox tradition imposes on 
the women of India presents obstacles to education which, 
if not insuperable, are at least formidable. The customs 
of purdah*® and of early marriage limit the number of 
girls in the schools and necessitate the withdrawal of. 
the majority before they have had a fair opportunity 
to acquire any lasting knowledge of letters, while the 
orthodox attitude of society towards women who accept 
any public position accentuates the difficulty of obtaining 
the necessary supply of professional teachers. It is 
only, or at least chiefly, when the general advance of 


1 Census of India, 1921, vol. 1, part I, p. 179. 

* Literally, a curtain. A word used in India to express the 
seclusion in which the high-class women live. They see no men 
but those who are relatives, and never go outside of the women’s 
quarters. 


LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 251 


male culture has reached well beyond the stage of mere 
vernacular literacy that the atmosphere becomes favour- 
able to real progress in the instruction of women; and, 
if the extent and progress of literacy among females 
usually follows closely the statistics for males, it is because 
the higher cultural advance of the latter, which causes 
the improvement of the condition of women, is built 
up on the basis of elementary literacy.”’ 


That there can be no great improvement of the com- 
munity until some of the cruel and wasteful limitations 
have been removed from the life of its women is a slowly 
penetrating idea which, more than any other, has produced 
the spirit of unrest. Two classes of women have hitherto 
been comparatively untouched by this movement: the 
very poor and the very rich. The lower classes are 
for the most part too preoccupied with the daily problem 
of how to make a living to give attention to education. 
The women of wealth and high position are in general 
quite satisfied with their comfortable, settled existence, 
and are besides firmly bound by convention. 

The older women of all classes are almost without 
exception strongly conservative. The spirit of progress 
finds its expression in a comparatively small handful of 
the younger generation—some hundreds, or possibly 
thousands at most, out of 35,000,000 women. These 
are confined almost entirely to the middle classes, being 
chiefly daughters of professional men and lower-grade 
government officials. Their protest takes three direc- 
tions: the demand for an opportunity to study, the 
demand for an opportunity for self-expression through 
taking part in the world’s work, and a demand _ for 
freedom from humiliating and intolerable social dis- 
abilities. 

The demand for an opportunity to study is meeting 


252 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


with a steadily widening acceptance. Thousands of 
girls are now studying in primary and middle schools ; 
scores are in high schools; two are in Queen Mary’s 
College, Madras; thirteen in the Isabella Thoburn 
College, Lucknow ; one has received the degree of M.A. 
from the Aligarh University, and another from the 
Lucknow University ; one has taken a medical degree 
from King George’s Medical College, Lucknow, and, 
after going to England for further study, has been given 
charge of a Dufferin Hospital in India, and her four 
sisters are now studying in King George’s Medical College. 
Several others are studying privately for degrees. 

Moslem men as well as women are so waking up to 
the necessity of education for girls that, in view of the 
paucity of good schools of their own, they are willing 
to place their daughters in Christian institutions. This 
applies to towns and cities, not to rural areas. In Madras 
there are not sufficient schools at present to meet the 
demand from Moslems. A missionary in Gujarat says that 
if she had had the funds to open a school when the head 
mulvi approached her on the subject a short time ago, 
she would have had all the Moslem girls in the town as 
pupils, although it was understood that Christian teaching 
would be given. A missionary in Colombo believes 
that numbers would attend boarding-schools specially 
opened for Moslem girls. Even in places where the 
number now attending school is small, missionaries say 
that the attendance would be increased if Arabic were © 
taught as well as the vernacular. The present educa- 
tional opportunity is almost limitless. 

The younger generation’s attitude towards education 
is indicated by one of the speeches at the first session 
of the Bombay Presidency Moslem Ladies’ Conference 
held at Poona in October 1924. In the report given in 


LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 253 


The Daily Telegraph and: Deccan Herald (Poona) we 
read : 


“Mrs. Moulvi, proposing a resolution, made a stirring 
speech on Moslem female education. She deplored 
that Moslem men had wronged Mohammedan women 
by neglecting their education, treating them at the most 
as a fine delicate piece of household furniture, unfit to 
be moved about. Moslem men were under the impression 
that Mohammedan women possessed neither head nor 
heart, and were meant for nothing more than serving 
their husbands as cooks, and hence were treated worse 
than domestic slaves. They had been given to under- 
stand that such services were the only part they were 
fitted to play, and, marvel of marvels, most of them were 
quite satisfied with their miserable fate. She therefore 
appealed to the women of Islam to open their eyes 
and follow the revolutionary changes in female society 
in Egypt and Turkey. She concluded by asserting that, 
purdah or no purdah, what was wanted was education. 
-Purdah was sure to disappear sooner or later if education 
was widely spread amongst the ladies of Mohamme- 
danism.”’ 


It is inevitable that along with education should 
be mentioned progress in literature. Very little exists 
especially written for women. A prominent Moslem 
lady of Lahore edits Tahzib-un-Niswan for women, and 
the wife of the treasurer of the Aligarh University edits 
Phul for children. A missionary in Bengal mentions a 
newly started magazine in Bengali for Moslem women. 
*‘ It contains no political or religious articles so far, but 
seems to aim at arousing women to prove themselves 
not the slaves of men, but their equals.’”’ The same 
missionary says that, in work among the ignorant villagers, 
she has found the ordinary Bengali books too difficult, 
and so has prepared simple Bible stories for them in their 


254 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


own village dialect, which is known as Mussalmani- 
Bengali. ‘‘ They willingly buy these books to serve as 
readers, and so gain knowledge of the truth with every 
reading-lesson. Even middle-aged women beg us to 
take them on as pupils, and our opportunities in this 
direction are almost unlimited.”’ A missionary in Delhi 
emphasizes the need of books for women of the better 
class “‘ written from a Moslem point of view by one 
steeped in the life of the women themselves.’’ Probably 
no form of work would have so powerful an influence 
as a well-planned literature of this kind. 

The demand for self-expression through engaging in 
the real work of the world has resulted in such achieve- 
ments, when given opportunity, as place women’s ability 
beyond question. The most conspicuous example of 
leadership among Moslem women is that of the Begum 
of Bhopal, whose enlightened government of her State 
and whose courage in prohibiting liquor in its territory 
(1923) have ranked her among the most progressive of 
Indian rulers, while the educational and social reforms 
in her own State and her influence over all Moslem India 
through her position as Chancellor of the Aligarh Uni- 
versity mark her as a pioneer in those fields. Other 
women have taken part in social service, particularly 
child welfare work. Women like Lady Mohammed Shafi 
of Simla and the late Begum Bibi Amman, the mother | 
of the Ali brothers, have done much to bring women — 
forward by addressing women’s meetings and organizing 
purdah parties. A Moslem woman was appointed in 
1924 an honorary magistrate in Bombay. 

The fields so far entered by Moslem women have been 
chiefly education and medicine. The larger number 
have become teachers, but some have been appointed 
educational inspectresses in Indian States. Nursing 


LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA Zoo 


claims the largest number of those in the medical depart- 
ment, but several have become assistant doctors, and 
at least one has become a dentist. A few have also 
entered the field of journalism by contributing magazine 
articles of interest to women, writing novels, and editing 
papers. 

To women such as these the miseries of genteel leisure 
are only too apparent. Even though, in some cases, 
learning and professionalism are carried on in the seclusion 
of the zenana, life has become to them a thing of richness 
and colour through their many interests and preoccupa- 
tions. Although to others the idea of a woman’s earning 
her living is still distasteful, these have come to the 
conclusion that women who live the parasitic life are a 
cause of weakness, economically and intellectually, to 
their community. 

It is in the answer to the third demand, for freedom 
from social disabilities, that those have most reason to 
rejoice who long to see Moslem women given a chance 
to live in a liveable way all the relations of life. For this 
demand is resulting in the setting up of new social 
standards for woman in Islam. We need to remind 
ourselves of her enormous handicaps—a minimum of 
education; a marriage contract wholly determined by 
man, to which she does not give her assent, but simply 
submits ; a marriage relation in which the relationship 
is not fixed by any rule of life, but is dependent on to-day’s 
caprice and to-morrow’s mood ; and finally, subordina- 
tion to a whole system of society in which law, organiza- 
tion, and custom have all combined to fix her in a position 
of inferiority. Is it any wonder that she is slow in coming 
out of her shell and realizing herself as an independent 
force? The interests opposed to her have secured for 
themselves so long a start that the Moslem woman will 


256 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


have a longer road to travel than most to secure her 
rights. But itis heartening to see the steps already taken. 

The first of her social disabilities, polygamy, has met 
with such criticism from outsiders that twenty years 
ago Mr. (now Sir) Syed Ameer Ali was led to offer his 
interpretation of the law of the Koran which says that 
a man may marry two, three, or four wives if he can 
be just to them; but, if he cannot, then he should marry 
only one. The new view offered, it will be remembered, 
was that the word “ just ’’ means conscientiously just, 
and, since no man can possibly be conscientiously just 
to more than one wife, Mohammed intended that he 
should have but one.* This is one of a number of in- 
stances of the way in which Moslem thinkers have faced 
circumstances and endeavoured to harmonize the precepts 
of Islam with the progressive conditions of modern 
civilization and life—courageous efforts at reform which 
command our deep interest and sympathy. Partly as 
a result of this liberal interpretation, public opinion 
against polygamy has been growing. Often a man of 
high position refuses to give his daughter as second or 
third wife to a man. At the All-India Moslem Ladies’ 
Conference of 1924 a resolution was passed by the members 
declaring that they would not countenance the marriage 
of their daughters to men already married, and that 
they would try to persuade their friends to take a similar 
stand. It is interesting to note that, five years before, 
a similar resolution failed to be passed by this organiza- 
tion. A young woman who then advanced this view 
was opposed by some of the other members and bitterly 
denounced by the local Moslem Press.? 

Divorce is still lamentably common, especially among 


1 Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, p. 190. 
2 See The Moslem World, April 1919, p. 172. 


LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 257 


the poorer classes and in village communities. In no 
respect do their social limitations bear more heavily on 
the women thanin this. Although theoretically protected 
by the provision made for divorce in the marriage settle- 
ment, it often proves impossible in practice to collect 
the sum so promised. Not only are the women too 
ignorant and inexperienced to fight for their rights because 
of their narrow up-bringing, but they are also far more 
afraid of public opinion than men, and the very act of 
appearing in court is usually enough to put them beyond 
the pale of respectability, since that is considered ‘‘ coming 
out of purdah.’’ Hence, a divorced woman—divorced 
in many cases for the most trifling reason—is a helpless 
outcast, conspicuously unwelcome in any home. But 
among the educated classes a man who divorces his wife 
is coming to be regarded with disapproval, and the 
practice is not so common as it was a generation ago. 

On one point, that of the purdah system, or the seclusion | 
of women, Moslem society still refuses to give way, though 
there is an increasing volume of opposition to it. The 
upper classes cling tenaciously to it, the women regarding 
it as a badge of aristocracy. At the Bombay Presidency 
Moslem Ladies’ Conference, 1924, the president warmly 
defended the system, though she is said to have been the 
only reactionary among the three hundred delegates. 
A constantly increasing number of women in cities 
appear at lectures and public gatherings, but almost 
invariably veiled if it is a mixed audience. A missionary 
mentions having been at a dinner-party in Aligarh at 
which the wives of some of the professors in the Aligarh 
University appeared unveiled and moved with the greatest 
freedom and sociability among the guests. But such 
episodes are all too rare. Almost the sole exception 
hitherto made is in the case of girls attending school and 

18 


258 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


college at a distance from their homes. The purdah is 
abandoned by them during the school term, but resumed 
when they return home for their holidays or after com- 
pleting their education. It is naturally these girls who, 
having had a taste of freedom, resent being forced back 
into seclusion, and it is probable that their daughters 
will enjoy the liberty that they now so much desire. 
There is a certain justification for conservatism on this 
point. Even those men who, in theory, are in favour of 
abolishing the purdah (and the men are as a rule much 
less conservative on social questions than the women) 
fear that its sudden withdrawal would result in wide- 
spread abuse of liberty and in social disintegration. It 
is natural to wish that such a change should come gradu- 
ally. But the breeze of new ideas stirring among old 
time-worn restrictions and conventions tells us that the 
system cannot live long. It is already doomed, and 
must go. 

The emancipation of Moslem women is proceeding along 
lines intellectual, economic, and social. Is it also pro- 
ceeding along the line of religion? This is less evident 
than the other three, yet even here are signs not without 
significance. There is unquestionably an appreciable 
number of unbaptized Christians in Moslem homes, and a 
still larger group of sincere inquirers. But there is also 
opposition. kemembering the natural conservatism of 
the Moslem woman and her extreme pride in her faith, 
remembering also the admirable traits of that faith 
and her belief in its vital contribution to the religious 
life of the world, we cannot find it surprising that she 
usually glories in Islam or tries to prove that it is essen- 
tially the same as Christianity. Especially in circum- 
stances where she feels that her religion is challenged, 
however indirectly, there is a natural desire to put 


LIFE OF WOMEN: INDIA 259 


herself on the defensive. At the Isabella Thoburn College 
nine Moslem students banded themselves together in 
1922 into a club called the “Anjuman Nau-Nihalan 
Islam ’”’ (“‘ The Association of Nine Young Plants of 
Islam ’’), whose purpose was to foster loyalty to their 
religion. Such a reaction is almost invariably the first 
result of the impact of Christianity against Islam. But 
here and there some who have been touched more deeply 
than others through some experience of life have expressed 
their dissatisfaction with Islam and their sense of its 
emptiness and formalism. The story of the death of 
Christ touches the hearts of such women, and Christian 
ideals of love and service make an undeniable appeal 
to them. To deepen these impressions until through 
their surrender to Christ Moslem women reach their 
highest freedom must be the endeavour of those who 
sympathize most intensely with their longing for in- 
tellectual and social freedom. It is impossible to forget 
that their aspirations will never be fully satisfied until 
they have realized the higher freedom of the spirit. 

We shall probably have to wait a while for the big 
things to happen. It is, after all, only a tiny fraction of 
the whole that has been touched by the new spirit. The 
movement is virtually leaderless, though it has the 
enormous asset of an idealistic impulse. But the revolu- 
tion it implies is tremendous. Its making good rests 
with the women themselves. Will they have sufficient 
insight and foresight to ally themselves with that which 
will give each individual personality its truest freedom ? 


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THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND 
ISLAM 


BY THE RIGHT REV. 
RENNIE MACINNES, D.D., 
Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem, 


IN COLLABORATION WITH THE REY. 
CANON HERBERT DANBY, D.D. 





CHAPTER XVII 
THE ANCIENT ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 


WHEN estimating the resources at our disposal for 
spreading the Gospel throughout the Moslem world, few 
Western Christians think, and then only as an after- 
thought, of including the ancient Oriental Churches. 
Not only is it the exception to look upon these ancient 
branches of the Catholic Church as assets in the Christian 
cause: some would even regard them as liabilities. 
This attitude of mind, though not incomprehensible, is 
to be regretted. 

Soldiers who have guarded the outposts and suffered 
the first shocks and full force of the enemy’s onslaught, 
and, though all but exterminated and cut off from all 
outside material support and moral encouragement, have 
yet held tight to their posts—such soldiers, however 
wounded and helpless, however limited in outlook and 
enterprise, and however lacking in resource and initiative, 
can only inspire feelings of respect and veneration in the 
hearts of fellow-fighters in happier, more successful, 
and—let it not be forgotten—easier fields. Such soldiers 


1 Under the vague heading, ‘‘ Ancient Oriental Churches,”’ 
we include the Orthodox Eastern Church (commonly but quite 
erroneously known as the “ Greek Church ’’)—and particularly 
those portions of it included in the pre-war Ottoman Empire, 
the Armenian Church, the Coptic (including the Abyssinian) 
Church, the ‘“‘ Nestorian ’’ Church, and the Jacobite (‘‘ Syrian 
Orthodox ’”’) Church, 

263 


264 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


in our Lord’s cause are the ancient Oriental Churches. 
They are all that is left of the Christian outposts in 
Western Asia, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, on which fell 
the first, freshest, and most powerful blows of the re- 
current Moslem campaigns from Khalid to Tamerlane. 
Their Christian brethren in the West could not, and, sad 
to relate, at a later stage would not, help them: the 
battered remnants have remained where they fell, 
wounded by the wayside, neglected and isolated, and 
despised by their earthly rulers. Neglect, isolation, and 
contempt have been their lot these thousand years and 
more; the world had no other reward to offer them 
for their adherence to Christianity, though ease and 
worldly honour might have been theirs by the simple 
process of acknowledging the Prophet; yet they held 
to the faith, endured the cross, and despised the shame. 
It is thoughtless presumption in Christians of the West 
to pass by such age-long devotion to our Lord and Master, 
or to give a condescending glance at these Oriental 
Churches as “interesting historical survivals.”’ The 
lot of the Christian of the West, compared with that of 
the Christian of the East, has been cast in a fair ground : 
his life has been easy and well-ordered, his suffering 
in the cause of Christ has been negligible. He has scant. 
right, in the sight of history, to any claim of proved 
superiority over his Christian brother of the East. 

In the double light of experience and faith we shall 
be blind indeed if we do not see in the ancient Oriental 
Churches potential allies and valuable assets in our work 
of rewinning to Christ the peoples of Egypt and Western 
Asia, now under the sway of Islam. Those outposts of 
the Christian Faith, so long isolated and even forgotten, 
are no longer left to fight alone their grim struggle for 
survival: the West, very late in the day, moved by 


ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 265 


the missionary ideal, has, in groping around the un- 
Christian East, regained touch with these worn and 
weathered pickets. Time has had its effect on them. 
Their moral and material resources have been exhausted 
almost to the limit of endurance, But they have endured. 
They are now in the condition of a relieved garrison : 
no longer need they remain in the same state of acute 
tension, with every fibre of their being strained to its 
utmost in the simple effort to exist. That strain is for 
the most part gone. They are free once more to take 
their true place in the ranks of the Church Militant and 
to reinvigorate their almost atrophied powers of spiritual 
growth and progress. ‘Theirs need no longer be a purely 
passive and defensive réle. The younger, fresher fighter 
from the West must devote himself with loving care 
towards re-equipping his veteran brother fighter: there 
is the strongest possible call for the outpouring of sym- 
pathy and inspiration to wipe away the enforced lethargy 
of ages which has cramped the aggressive possibilities 
of these Eastern Churches, hemmed in and overpowered 
by sheer numbers and political oppression. 

Now, throughout a large part of the East—with some 
grievous exceptions—the more positive political oppres- 
sion is past. In place of a ruling power instinctively 
hostile, is found a power friendly or, at the least, neutral 
in its sympathies. There is little to stand in the way 
of the hoped-for reaction of the ancient Eastern Churches 
to the fresher idealism which is the contribution of the 
Christian West to the despairing languor of the Christian 
East. It is in our power to offer moral encouragement 
and material aid—but not conditionally, and not with 
any feeling of condescension; we may only make the 
offer in the spirit of privileged help. 

One of the deeply rooted ideas, held consciously or 


266 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


unconsciously in the mind of Western Christianity when 
contrasting itself with Eastern Christianity, is that the 
latter wholly lacks the missionary ideal, and that this 
missionary ideal is the monopoly of the Christian West. 
Though this is patently true of the present, some ac- 
quaintance with the history of the Oriental Churches 
quickly convinces us that this was not always the case. 
So long as the Eastern Churches retained any semblance 
of freedom of action they manifested a missionary enter- 
prise, zeal, and initiative, and a spirit of personal sacrifice 
in the missionary cause of Christianity, such as have 
never been equalled, let alone surpassed, by the efforts 
of the comparatively recent missionary work of the 
Churches of the West. For fourteen centuries the 
missionary ideal was pursued by one or other of the 
Eastern Churches; not until they were all but exter- 
minated and their activities heavily fettered by political 
oppression and social degradation, applied sometimes 
crushingly and always severely by their Moslem rulers, 
did their missionary powers droop and wither. 

Long before the evangelization of England from Rome, 
and while the Celtic Church was still grappling with the 
heathenism of Ireland, the west of Scotland, and parts 
of England, Oriental Christians, with their base suc- 
cessively at Antioch, Edessa, and Seleucia-Ctesiphon, 
were fighting, and fighting with magnificent success, 
their Lord’s cause away in the Far East. From Maz- 
deism the Edessene Church made innumerable conquests, 
and the first ‘‘ National Church,’’ in the modern sense of 
the term, was set up in Persia. This Church was wholly 
cut off by political boundaries from the Roman Empire. 


1 The precise nature of the obstacles placed by Islam in the path 
of the growth of Christianity we shall touch upon elsewhere in the 
chapter. 


ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 267 


Its bishops could take no direct part on the @cumenical 
Councils, and its language, Syriac, was such as did not 
enable it easily to follow the subtleties of Byzantine 
doctrinal interpretation and definition. This political 
isolation and this unadaptability in language were largely 
to blame for the Nestorianism on the one extreme, and 
the Monophysitism on the other, which finally separated 
the Churches east of Antioch and south of Alexandria 
from Byzantine orthodoxy, and branded them as heretical 
in the eyes of the West. But of all this the rank and file 
of the Edessene and Persian Churches knew, and could 
know, little. They preserved the faith, and took every 
means of teaching the faith, as it was known to them. 

The Persian Church in the reign of Shapur II, in the 
middle of the fourth century, endured the heaviest 
and bitterest martyrdoms known in the whole history 
of the Church. The historian Sozomen gives the total 
of 16,000 martyrs who died in Shapur’s reign. Un- 
daunted by such persecution, they pressed on with their 
missionary work and penetrated the wildest parts of 
the world’s surface—through Tibet into China, and 
southwards to India. Buddhist ritual, to this day, pre- 
serves traces of early Christian ritual; the present 
Mongolian alphabets are plainly relics of the Syriac 
Christian culture introduced centuries ago by the Persian 
Christian missionaries ; and the old Syriac language and 
liturgy are still to be heard on the Malabar coast in the 
south of India. Before the final catastrophe of the 
Tamerlane invasion the Nestorians had created an 
enormous Asiatic Church, consisting of no less than 
twenty-five metropolitan sees, missionary centres through- 
out Khurasan, Turkistan, India, and China. 

Again, from the Eastern Christians of Edessa the 
Gospel was taken to Armenia as early as the third century, 


268 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


and it was the Coptic monks of Egypt who, in the fifth 
and sixth centuries, revived, reorganized, and preserved 
Christianity in Abyssinia; while the greatest national 
conversion in history, that of the Russian nation, was 
the fruit of Byzantine Christianity at the end of the 
tenth century. 

Farther East, where Islam had not yet gained its 
ascendancy, the Church of Persia persisted in its mis- 
sionary work for centuries after the Hijra. Its Patriarch 
and metropolitans were honoured in the courts of the 
Mongol Ilkhan rulers of Persia in the thirteenth century, 
and converts were made within the reigning family 
itself, It was long confidently supposed in the West 
that the Mongol rulers and their followers were Christians, 
or on the point of embracing Christianity ; it was a 
long-cherished idea that, though the Crusaders were driven 
out of the Holy Land, a united effort of Christian princes 
of the West and Mongol allies from the farther East would 
yet again eject the Moslems from Palestine.? 

History, therefore, leaves us in no uncertainty as to 
the inherent missionary enterprise of our Christian 
brethren of the ancient Oriental Churches, such time as 
the least semblance of freedom and growth has been 
permitted them. Whenever our thoughts turn to ques- 
tioning what they are doing, or what they can do or 
ought to do towards furthering the faith among non- 
Christians, we have no right to overlook what they have 
done in the past. 

The fact, however, to be faced is that during the 
centuries of Islam’s existence the ancient Oriental 


1 In 1287 we find a Nestorian Christian, a Mongol, the “‘ arch- 
deacon ’”’ of the Patriarch Yaballaha III (also a Mongol) present- 
ing himself at the court of the English king, Edward I, with the 
objectjof negotiating such an alliance, 


ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM — 269 


Churches have not advanced the Christian cause against 
Islam, but have, to a greater or less extent, retreated 
before it. There is an old rabbinical saying: ‘‘ Judge 
not thy brother till thou art in his place.’ We may 
not pass judgment on the supineness of Christianity 
under Islam until we know better the position in which 
these Oriental Christians found themselves once the 
flood of Islam had overwhelmed them. It is a hard 
saying, but, humanly speaking, missionary endeavour 
becomes possible only when there is an acknowledged 
or unacknowledged moral, and even material, ascendancy 
in the would-be missionary or missionary body. Such 
an ascendancy the Eastern Churches failed to preserve 
before the wave of Islam. It was no inherent superiority 
in Islam which crushed them, but the combination of 
internal dissension, political subservience, and failure 
to retain their old spiritual life and vigour. 

What, then, was the lot of those Christian bodies 
which still survived under Moslem political rule? Some 
would have us believe that they, as “people of the 
Book,’ enjoyed the amplest toleration.* Our attention 
is called to the decree? said to have been issued by the 
Caliph Omar after the capture of Jerusalem : 


“In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate ! 
This is the security which Omar, the servant of God, the 
commander of the faithful, grants to the people of Aelia 
[Jerusalem]. He grants to all, whether sick or sound, 
security for their lives, their possessions, their churches 
and their crosses, and for all that concerns their religion. 
Their churches shall not be changed into dwelling-places, 
nor destroyed, neither shall they nor their appurtenances 


1 Sir T. W, Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, London, 1896, 
passim, 
2 Abu Tabari, Annales (Leiden, 1885-93), vol. 1, p. 2405. 


270 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


be in any way diminished, nor the crosses of the in- 
habitants nor aught of their possessions, nor shall any 
constraint be put upon them in the matter of their 
faith, nor shall any one of them be harmed.”’ } 


This document may be genuine, and this policy may 
have been pursued for a brief space ; but the history of 
Christianity under the Moslems tells a very different 
story of the treatment consistently meted out in later 
centuries to those who still clung to the faith of the 
Church in Moslem lands. ‘“‘ Toleration’’ was certainly 
extended in return for the payment of 7zzyah (the capita- 
tion tax imposed on dhimmis, non-Mohammedans living 
under Mohammedan rule); but what a “ toleration ’’!?* 
A more accurate picture of the conditions is given in 
another ordinance? likewise attributed to the Caliph 
Omar, but obviously belonging to a later age which sought 
primitive sanction for what had become established usage : 


“In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate ! 
This is a writing to Omar b. al-Khattab from the Christians 
of such and such a city. When you marched against us, 
we asked of you protection for ourselves, our posterity, 
our possessions and our co-religionists; and we made 
this stipulation with you, that we will not erect in our 
city or the suburbs any new monastery, church, cell, or — 
hermitage ; that we will not repair any of such buildings 
that may fall into ruins, or renew those that may be 
situated in the Moslem quarters of the town; that we 
will not refuse the Moslems entry into our churches 
either by night or by day; that we will open the gates 
wide to passengers and travellers; that we will receive 

1 de Goeje, M. J., Mémoire sur la conquéte de la Syrie, Leide, 
1900, pp. 143 ff.; Leone Caetani, Annali dell’ Islam, Milano, 1910, 
vol. 3, p. 957. 

2 Gottheil, Richard J. H., Dhimmis and Moslems in Egypt 
(Old Testament and Semitic Studies in Memory of William Rainey 
Harper), Chicago, 1908, vol. 2, pp. 382-4. 


ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 271 


any Moslem traveller into our houses and give him food 
and lodging for three nights ; that we will not harbour 
any spy in our churches or houses, or conceal any enemy 
of the Moslems; that we will not teach our children the 
Koran; that we will not make a show of the Christian 
religion nor invite any one to embrace it; that we will 
not prevent any of our kinsmen from embracing Islam, 
if they so desire. That we will honour the Moslems and 
rise up in our assemblies when they wish to take their 
seats ; that we will not imitate them in our dress, either 
in the cap, turban, sandals, or parting of the hair; that 
we will not make use of their expressions of speech, nor 
adopt their surnames; that we will not ride on saddles, 
or gird on swords, or take to ourselves arms or wear 
them, or engrave Arabic inscriptions on our rings; that 
we will not sell wine; that we will shave the front of 
our heads; that we will keep to our own style of dress, 
wherever we may be; that we will wear girdles round 
our waists; that we will not display the cross upon our 
churches or display our crosses or our sacred books in 
the streets of the Moslems, or in their market-places ; 
that we will strike the bells in our churches lightly ; 
that we will not recite our services in a loud voice when 
a Moslem is present; that we will not carry palm-branches 
or our images in procession in the streets; that at the 
burial of our dead we will not chant loudly or carry 
lighted candles in the streets of the Moslems or their 
market-places ; that we will not take any slaves that 
have already been in the possession of Moslems, nor spy 
into their houses ; and that we will not strike any Moslem. 
All this we promise to observe, on behalf of ourselves 
and our co-religionists, and receive protection from you 
in exchange; and, if we violate any of the conditions 
of this agreement, then we forfeit your protection and 
you are at liberty to treat us as enemies and rebels.” 


Thus no ingenuity was spared in harassing the Chris- 
tians, in impressing upon them, and demonstrating to 


atl 


272 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


their Moslem neighbours, the degraded social status of 
all who persisted in their adherence to Christianity, and 
in suppressing any possibility of healthy internal develop- 
ment or of propagating the Christian Faith among those 
that were without. Add to this the fact that real or 
supposed prosperity among non-Moslem sections of the 
community marked them down as obvious victims of 
extra fiscal oppression whenever the State was in need 
of revenue—and we shall see how effectively Christianity 
was hedged in and held under, not only by the outside 
world’s assumption of the degradation then synonymous 
with Christianity, but also by the lowering of moral 
standards thereby induced among the Christians them- 
selves. The wonder is, not that Christianity failed to 
make any headway in such circumstances, but that it 
survived at all under the imposed burdens of restrictions 
and enforced sense of social inferiority. 

It is true that the last century has seen a change. 
The stigma of social degradation had largely been removed 
long before the war, and political changes since have 
tended, or are tending, to place the adherents of all 
religions on a basis of complete equality ; outside op- 
pression may no longer be brought forward as an excuse 


for loss of spiritual life. But it requires more than a ,- 


decade or two to wipe out the effects of centuries. Modern 
psychological jargon speaks of an “ inferiority complex ”’ ; 
and such a thing it is, to a very great extent, which 
centuries of Moslem rule have endeavoured to instil 
into the moral being of the ancient Oriental Churches. 
In the nature of things the attempt could never have 
achieved complete success, yet some results of the treat- 
ment, both in the ruling and in the victimized races, were 
bound to endure for a time. These results cannot be 
eliminated at once; they will be eliminated still more 


ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM 278 


slowly if members of the free, untrammelled Churches 
of the West thoughtlessly perpetuate the process of 
centuries of Islam, by adopting a similar pose of super- 
cilious contempt. 

In these ancient Churches we may hope to find allies 
in the advancing of Christ’s cause—but they are allies 
who have already fought and suffered ; they have suffered 
wounds and sickness the like of which we, in the provi- 
dence of God, have been spared. These points we 
must never forget; they should guide our thoughts 
in all our relations, actual and possible, with them. 
God has not suffered them to perish. He still has work 
for them to do. It is our part not to pass judgment 
on what they are doing or ought to do, but to discover 
how it may be in our power to help them to recover 
the health and vigour of their youth. We know that 
they are endowed with special gifts which make them 
eminently suitable and well equipped in the struggle 
against the ranks of Islam—in the very nature of things 
they must possess an intimate personal knowledge of 
Mohammedanism’s popular forms, its particular weak- 
nesses and its particular strength; they already have, 
what the Western Christian can never wholly acquire, 
an intimate acquaintance with followers of Islam; they 
have many things in common with their opponents— 
language, traditions, environment, history, and social 
usages. These strong points in their armour are too 
obvious to need stressing. But it would be foolish to 
blind our eyes to the other side of things, the positive 
weaknesses in these ancient Churches. Not merely 
have they lost their old missionary zeal, but they regard 
the notion of the conversion of the Moslems with actual 
abhorrence. Too often any reference to the call to 
missionary effort and to our responsibility to try to 

19 


274 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


win the Moslems arouses in them obvious astonishment ; 
they would argue that such people are beyond the pale, 
that we may not degrade our holy things by giving them 
to the dogs! Thus a colporteur on the Cairo station 
platform once offered a Bible for sale to a Moslem; a 
native Christian standing by indignantly struck the 
Bible out of the man’s hand on to the ground, and rebuked 
the colporteur most sternly for “‘ casting pearls before 
swine.’’ And this, unhappily, is the attitude of mind 
of a very large proportion of the native Christians of 
the East to-day. 

Rightly, therefore, can we believe that we have much 
to contribute to the well-being and effectiveness of the 
Christian East—the conviction that the Christian must 
strive to maintain a standard of life worthy of his Master, 
and that Christianity, by its very nature, must needs 
be aggressive; that the Christian believer must needs 
offer the glad tidings to those who have never heard. 
Also we have educational resources and institutions, 
we have an accumulation of knowledge in missionary 
work throughout the world, we have organized bodies 
of devoted workers, all of which we can gladly place 
at the disposal of our fellow-workers of the Eastern 
Churches. In other words, our part is to work and pray 
that God will use us as a means to strengthen the hands 
of the remnants of these ancient armies of Christendom, 
to strengthen the moral of these veterans—a moral 
which has been so sorely tried by centuries of oppression 
and solitude. 

The process of working side by side has already begun, 
yet results have been very slow to show themselves. 
In more than one of these Oriental Christian communities 
a younger generation has arisen whose members have 
come into close contact with the ideals of the Western 


ORIENTAL CHURCHES AND ISLAM) 275 


Churches and have learned to re-examine their own 
Church and fellow Christians in the light of this contact. 
They begin to see how it may be in their power to put 
aside much that, while it made for security and preserva- 
tion, clogged the forward action of their Church. Gene- 
rally speaking, and of course not forgetting a very few 
individual and isolated examples to the contrary, there 
is amongst the laity some desire for wider education and 
reform; but this is not altogether a longing for more 
spiritual life, but is mixed up with the desire of acquiring 
national independence. The majority of missionaries 
who work amongst Moslems would emphatically say that 
there are not yet any indications of a real desire among 
Eastern Christians to evangelize the Moslems. But a 
real step forward has been taken in that a generation 
is arising which has learned to see in the Western Churches 
allies in Christ and not, as they have long feared, some- 
times with reason, merely rival claimants to the allegiance 
of the native Christians. How such mutual confidence 
can, in practice, be called forth may be illustrated by the 
fact that the period of closest contact with the Coptic 
Church in Egypt was when the Church Missionary 
Society developed its most definite evangelistic work 
amongst the Moslems—when both Moslems and Copts 
became convinced of our sincerity. 


The ancient Oriental Churches can never be more 
than a blunted weapon in the campaign of Christianity 
against Islam until, by aid from without and by spiritual 
revival within, they shall, by life and conduct, again 
win that respect from the Islamic races which they have 
lost so long. Centuries of oppression have not failed 
to leave their mark on both oppressor and oppressed. 
Travellers in the East have not been slow to say hard 


276 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


things of native Christians who have come under their 
notice—that they are backboneless creatures, Christians 
only because their fathers were Christians before them, 
that their religion is only an external armour of inherited 
habit and belief, that they are, so to speak, crustaceous 
rather than vertebrate in their spiritual construction. 
Christians of the West who contemptuously sit in judg- 
ment on Christians of the East should realize that this 
is not the way to help them. We shall only confirm 
them in that loss of respect if we ourselves treat them with 
contempt ; we shall then be continuing, with deplorable 
results, that same work which Islam began and carried 
on for 1,300 years—of deliberately striving to make 
Christianity something despicable! Islam all but suc- 
ceeded in its attempt ; must it be left to fellow Christians 
to complete that work ? 

Beginning with sympathy, we must, on our part, 
learn to respect and honour these Churches and create, 
so far as lies in our power, conditions which shall justify 
such respect and honour. Oriental Christianity, the 
spiritual mother of all Christianity, will then the better 
hold high its head before Islam and, freed from the 
bondage of contempt, not wholly earned but largely 
imposed from without, be at liberty to play a real and 
full part in the evangelization of the East. We may 
leave the rest to God and His guidance. 


ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES AND THE 
EVANGELIZATION OF THE MOSLEMS 


BY THE REV. 
W. H. T. GAIRDNER, B.A., 
Secretary, Church Missionary Soctety, Cairo 


Cie MA CUNT IMMOD MATES at a ate 
oi 4 taker om H TUE HECK KORY f MT, Tbe 


aN el its Spat: 
aa & i UATE, ee a 


oni. » jelae Wi ms hpennstaad a om he 


}. 


7, vy 





CHAPTER XVIII 


ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES AND 
THE EVANGELIZATION OF THE MOSLEMS 


Is it not now universally recognized in every mission 
country that the problem of problems and the hope of 
hopes is the evangelization of that country by its own 
Christian community? The following thought-sequence, 
which occurs in a paper recently read before Oriental 
and missionary leaders in Cairo, would probably be 
accepted by all as possessing almost mathematical 
cogency. We cannot do better than to begin with it, 
and immediately thereafter consider why it is ten times 
harder to turn the theoretical syllogism into a practical 
one in the Moslem East than in any other part of the 
mission-field. For this procedure will take us straight 
to the heart of our subject. 


“We are all agreed that when Jesus Christ founded 
His Church He purposed to spread His message of salva- 
tion everywhere by means of that Church. 

“We are all agreed that this work is the main duty 
of the Church as a whole; that Christ’s congregation in 
this world is not intended to live to itself, not even to 
build up itself in holiness, but to live for its evangelizing 
task. The community whose entire energies are spent 
in maintaining itself will ultimately lack the energy to 
do even that. 

“We are all agreed, then, that if this task and this 
ideal are universal, it must be made the conscious aim, 

279 


280 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the enthusiasm of the lesser communities included within 
the Church Universal—that is to say, of each denomina- 
tion and of each local congregation of each denomination ; 
and that this, again, should mean that all the families 
and individual members of those congregations have the 
same conscious aim, the same enthusiasm. It is only 
by particularizing, in ever-narrowing circles of applica- 
tion, that any campaign is won: as was discovered, for 
example, in the Great War or in the spiritual warfare 
of the Early Church. 

“We are all agreed that the responsibility for the 
evangelization of each whole country is and must be 
mainly, indeed almost entirely, upon the local Christian 
community, denominations, congregations, families, and 
church-members in that country. 

“We are all agreed, again, that the ultimate aim of 
all missionary work initiated in every country from the 
outside is the evangelization of the non-Christians of 
that country. 

“We are all agreed that the missionary societies 
entered the Mohammedan lands of the East for just this 
purpose, and that this is the immediate or ultimate 
aim of every society and of every missionary in those 
lands. 

“So, then, the abiding test of the success of missionary 
work in these lands will be, how far the Christian Church 
which has been influenced or raised up by missionary 
effort does take up and prosecute the evangelization 
of the non-Christians of these lands: for assuredly only 
thus, and not by the performances of foreigners, however 
devoted, can the task be accomplished or even carried 
on in a healthy way. 

“If these things be true, we are then agreed that the 
abiding test of the success of missionary work in Moham- 
medan lands will be how far the Christian community 
in these lands, and especially that community which has 
been influenced or raised up through missionary effort, 
takes up and prosecutes the evangelization of Islam.”’ 


ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 281 


If these things are so, why is it that the old Oriental 
Churches are more causes of despair than of hope in this 
regard ? Nay, why is it that the Reformed communities, 
whether Anglican, Presbyterian, or Congregational, 
which have been raised up in Near Eastern lands during 
the last eighty years, numerous, powerful, well-educated 
though they be, are an almost complete disappointment 
in the very matter which, as we have seen, touches their 
actual vaison d’étre? This fact is too unquestionable 
to be denied, too serious not to be faced, and, let us at 
once say, too simply intelligible not to be treated with 
sympathy. Indeed, it is only when the causes of the 
disappointment are frankly faced that they can be 
clearly understood, only when clearly understood 
that they can be appreciated with sympathy, and 
only when they are appreciated with sympathy that 
they can be changed. And changed they must be if 
the syllogism remains so inexorably true, and if the 
mission Churches continue, nevertheless, to be such a 
disappointment in the one thing for which they were 
founded by their great pioneers. 

In the first place, the old Oriental Churches, such as 
the Greek-Orthodox, Coptic, Gregorian, and Uniate 
communities, have a long non-evangelistic and non- 
“ proselytizing ’’ tradition behind them reaching back 
to before Islam. And they are also, taken broadly, 
inert, timorous, and destitute of evangelistic fire. The 
Reformed communities mentioned above are composed 
of ex-members of those Oriental communities and their 
descendants, not of converts from Islam, who are either 
non-existent or form (except in Persia) an infinitesimal 
and unassimilated element in these communities of 
hereditary Christians. 

There seem to be three main difficulties. The first 


282 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


and fundamental one is the age-long pressure of a con- 
quering, a domineering, and an unsparing state-religion : 
a religion which has made “ proselytism’’ and even 
preaching criminal offences ; a religion which has barely 
conceded to the depressed members of other faiths the 
right to exist, and then only on the express condition 
that they kept themselves to themselves, i.e., did not 
fulfil what we have seen above is the law of their being ; 
a religion which has caused its adherents to accept acts 
of kindness, friendliness, and Christian service as the 
due of a lordly from a menial people ; which has attributed 
even such acts and services to cowardice, to ulterior 
motives, to the mean currying of favour; and which 
thus has discounted, neutralized, and spoiled the very 
conduct in which Christ most reveals Himself, and by 
which men are impressed and won. 

With all the centuries of this treatment, and the deep, 
inherited thought-attitudes created by it, has come fear, 
distrust, disbelief in the possibility of the Christianizing 
of such people. And, with the attitude and power of 
the governing class largely unchanged to-day, how can 
we expect the Christian community in the East to clear 
at one leap the 1,400 years that separate it from the 
days when Christianizing and conversion of non-Christians 
were part of normal Christian life ? 

The second difficulty is that the historic development 
of religious communities in the East has tended to turn 
them all into something resembling nations, the governing 
bodies of which are charged with a multitude of duties 
concerning the personal and social and political status 
of their members: the direct result is the disinclination 
to admit outsiders, and the denial of the desirability or 
even possibility of conversion, along with a strong develop- 
ment of those feelings of antipathy and antagonism which 


ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 283 


are associated with national community-feeling. We 
are thus faced with another colossal historic difficulty 
with a standing of a millennium and a half. 

The third difficulty is the fact that too often the 
Christian communities have been disappointed in converts 
from Islam, some of whom should never have been ad- 
mitted, others of whom ran well and then turned traitor. 
The fact that some of these failures were directly due to 
soil and atmosphere uncongenial to the new plants, does 
not weaken the point, while it strengthens another one, 
namely, that until there exists in the East a Christian 
Church in which converts from Islam can be at home, 
missionaries will continue to work almost in vain. 

These enormous and baffling difficulties must be 
bravely, truthfully, sympathetically recognized, without 
the slightest assertion or feeling of moral or spiritual su- 
periority in any quarter. Onlyso can we begin to face and 
to attack these Anakim which, while the Christian Church 
was in bondage, have occupied these lands of promise. 

Moreover, what makes these difficulties acute, and the 
failure which they spell so serious, is the fact that the 
small number of Christians who have come out from 
Islam have remained, on the whole, an unwelcome, un- 
wanted, and unassimilated element in Oriental Christian 
communities, in the “‘ Reformed ’”’ no less than in the 
“ Orthodox.’”’ We here come to the core of that which is 
to-day the problem and for the solution of which we must 
look to to-morrow. The reasons—if you will, the excuses 
—for this strange, disconcerting, baffling fact have 
already been sufficiently analysed. But we simply 
cannot accept the fact as necessary or as permanent. 
For if the ultimate success of the evangelistic enterprise 
depends upon the way in which it is taken up and finally 
taken over by the Oriental Christian community, this 


284 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


is only to say that it depends upon the extent to which 
that community becomes a home for those who turn 
from Islam to Christ. For the Church or congregation 
which desires to be, sets out to be, and succeeds in be- 
coming, a home for those converted to Christ from 
Islam is in itself a gospel—the best, highest, and most 
Christlike gospel of all: the gospel that will be most 
easily loved by those without, and will most powerfully 
attract them to enter. Precisely such a Church will 
certainly be the one most forward in preaching to non- 
Christians in the ordinary sense of the word. 

Therefore, to see these congregations and communities 
as homes for those who are not yet Christ’s but for whom 
Christ is seeking, is the supreme task, the highest ideal, 
the fairest dream. Only in such nurseries can new-born 
souls thrive. Only when the soil of Christ’s garden-plots 
is thus congenial to these new plants will they survive 
the shock of transference from their native soil and thrive 
and grow and flower and yield fruit. 

There is a special reason why this holds true in Moslem 
mission lands. Whatever we may think of Islam, it 
has markedly stood for a brotherhood, a universal 
brotherhood of a sort. It may be that many of the 
manifestations of this brotherhood are imperfect, un- 
spiritual, even most injurious to those without. But, 
from the point of view of those within, it does stand 
for something—with many for much, with some for 
everything. If this is so, it is obvious that unless we 
can show them a brotherhood that is higher, better, 
more spiritual, warmer, tenderer—in one word, truer 
—they will marvel how we have the face to preach to 
them at all. And contrariwise, a people so familiar 
with the idea of brotherhood will specially appreciate 
the real thing when they see it. 


ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 285 


How, then, shall the three baffling difficulties mentioned 
above be faced and then wrestled with and overthrown ? 

To the first must be opposed once more the ideal of 
Christian courage and hope. In spite of all, the mentality 
is not just the same to-day as it was in 1725 or in 1825. 
The ideas of civil and religious freedom, at least, have 
been given a start. So the moment is favourable for 
the Church to re-learn hope. But in any case it needs 
to re-learn courage. And why should not those races 
which withstood 1,300 years of persecution and dying 
for being Christians, be equally willing to withstand per- 
secution—aye, and even death—for being evangelists ? 
And the missionaries must be willing to suffer both 
persecution and death with them. 

To the second difficulty must be opposed the original 
conception of the Christian Church, whose specially warm 
fraternal love within the spiritual brotherhood did not 
in the least spell chilliness, much less hostility, to those 
without ; but rather guaranteed a universal friendliness 
and an all-embracing benevolence, the very qualities which 
most of all attracted souls to join the fellowship, so that 
they might share the more intense warmth within. 

To the third difficulty missionaries must oppose a 
revised procedure and make a candid confession of many 
mistakes in the past, such as unwisdom, hastiness, in- 
efficient pastoral care, insufficient co-operation with one 
another and with their Oriental fellow-Christians. 

But are these suggestions practical? In order to 
change a situation which has been wrong for 1,500 years, 
and which is still to-day difficult and complicated to the 
last degree, the most practical thing is to analyse it as 
clearly, as fearlessly, and as lovingly as possible, and then 
‘to concentrate attention on changing the thoughts which 
for historical reasons have been warped so long. For 


286 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


thoughts are practical things, because they lead to 
actions. While missionaries, in their haste to act, perhaps 
call thoughts unpractical things, Oriental mothers are 
busy instilling the old thoughts into another generation 
of children, which will inevitably produce the old actions 
and attitudes and will continue to thwart the glorious 
plans of the Divine Son of Man. 

If, then, it is almost a new philosophy of Christianity 
and its history that is involved, this can be taught only © 
by leaders of Oriental Christianity, by the clergy, minis- 
ters, evangelists, elders, school-teachers, and church- 
members, who are fathers and mothers. It is to them 
the appeal must be made, thus to learn and thus to teach : 
to let this beautiful idea be known and loved, the idea 
of their Church as a home for the souls shivering in the 
cold without, or as a garden-plot for the wild plant 
transplanted thither. Let these folk get the right 
attitude, the attitude of welcome, of friendliness, of 
sympathy for the cruel difficulties of the newly baptized. 
This demands clear thinking, clear teaching, and clear 
leading from those responsible for planning, for instruc- 
tion, and for guidance. 

From history and experience we know that similar 
thought-campaigns have been waged in the West and 
have prevailed to change minds to action—but not with- 
out time and travail. One sees here a truly vast enter- 
prise, an enterprise as definite and as great as that of 
the Student Volunteer Missionary Movement in the 
West, although the emphasis will be on education rather 
than on life-service, education that will begin at the very 
centre—in the synods, the clerical and ministerial 
assemblies, and will radiate to the very circumference, 
to the general membership of every local congregation ; 
education which shall be definitely planned and con- 


ORIENTAL CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES 287 


trolled, and carefully watched and regulated by those 
who shall be responsible for oversight ; education behind 
which shall be the dynamic of continual prayer, and 
which shall work itself out by sermon and address, study- 
circle, textbooks, and example ; education to be applied 
to congregation, schools, and home, to the end that 
public opinion and social consciousness may be changed 
—nay, that change may be wrought in something even 
deeper and more dynamic than consciousness, namely, 
the sub-conscious life that is the deposit of the inherited 
and accumulated thought and feeling of the centuries. 

Who is sufficient for these things? Surely no one. 
They call for the impossible. Nevertheless, there come 
to mind fragments of words, old yet ever new: ‘‘ And 
nothing shall be impossible to you”; “only have 
faith ! all things are possible to the man who has faith ”’ ; 
and, “‘ I have found all things possible—in my dynamic, 
Christ.”’ 





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AP ls oh AT) aed beets, 
mes WTA torruls 
tay.) ‘i " j 
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fa) pec) i 
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‘ rneren never docunape Liat He daidkwe 
yaoi nibh, eo uty rt alee te Monti skate ni 

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. Coe moon’ ¥ pitied why’ OH outa: Hans ebnation relootlsan eonstsaginiy ia Meg 
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Cw 


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Das heaenbeel sy Meh Lo aitesl fides niques Ro eluant) bo 
COS ‘rer Ort! ykeritiey: 5 want, Sead dct: Angiobey ated _ 
ys Haars ermal hs week rorea ih 1)  wnkedicannny cent onl oly Hage ey 

Bk inv Saree rong bide ekfsows to, eaersenan: bunk 9. i. 
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a pd Hel und urin nar edh.cd shdikesty aus Sythe aa oe 
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Meo date bale CRIN ISG eS cho Li ery) IA hd eel | 
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m Pes eat aren ey Grate Be Rai va wit iil aS ot | Bia a 
ay wa } V ne i" > mh « u 
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THE MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 


BY 
GEORGE SWAN, 
Secretary, Egypt General Mission 


20 


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Reged) \ Wa wing 
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CHAPTER XIX 
THE MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 


‘* With a measure of light and a measure of shade 
The world of old by the Word was made ; 
By the shade and light was the Word conceal’d, 
And the Word in flesh to the world reveal’d 
Is by outward sense and its forms obscured ; 
The spirit within is the long-lost Word, 
Besought by the world of the soul in pain 
Through a world of words which are void and vain, 
O never while shadow and light are blended 
Shall the world’s Word-quest or its woe be ended, 
And never the world of its wounds made whole 
Till the Word made flesh be the Word made soul! ”’ 

ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE, 


Is it not true that at the back of all religions there is 
the quest of the knowledge of God? In the words of 
St. Paul, ‘‘ God... hath made of one blood all nations 
of men... that they should seek the Lord, if haply they 
might feel after Him, and find Him.”’1 Some seek Him, 
ab initio, by the deductive or inductive processes of 
philosophy ; others, taking as their basis a revelation which 
they accept, seek by defining and systematizing this 
revelation to come to a clearer conception of the Deity; 
while still others seek in various ways a personal ex- 
perience of God. It is these last who are generally 
termed the mystics of any given religion. Against this 
Acts. 57:::26,°27. 
291 


292 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


we must always bear in mind that great mystics, like al- 
Ghazali in Islam, were often philosophers and systematic 
theologians as well as seekers after a personal and inward 
experience of God. 

For every individual, however, who truly seeks after 
God there are multitudes who are satisfied with the 
results of others’ search, who adopt a philosophy, a dogma, 
a creed, a ritual with more or less credulity or imitate 
the processes which some revered saint found helpful 
as he “ practised the presence of God,” or sought to 
reproduce the ecstatic condition which he believed to 
be communion with the Infinite. When we come to 
_study the mysticism of the masses of Moslem lands we 
find it, with very few exceptions, thus imitative and 
traditional. 

For the first six centuries of Moslem history mysticism 
was largely individualistic, except for occasional schools 
that gathered round those who had become famous for 
their mystical attainments, and who had also the gift 
of passing on to others the acquisitions of their contem- 
plative life and their intuitively gained knowledge of 
God. As we approach the close of this period we begin 
to find less strict individualism. The number of really 
great mystical teachers has so increased as to have 
become an important factor in the life of every Mos- 
lem country. They have become eclectic, recognizing, 
criticizing, and adopting much of the learning and 
experience of other mystic teachers, now generally 
known as Sufis. In their eclecticism they do not confine 
themselves to Islam, and so we find, taking one example 
only, a very strong Neo-Platonist influence derived from 
the great work of the Pseudo-Dionysius, the Areopagite 
of Alexandria, a work which, through the translation 
of Johannes Scotus Erigena, profoundly affected the 


MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 293 


mysticism of Europe, and which accounts for many of the 
similarities between medieval Catholic and Arab mysti- 
cism. This systematizing of mystic lore became concrete 
and generally available by the writing of certain famous 
books, such as Qutu ’1-Qulub, by Abu Talib al-Makki 
(d. A.D. 996); the Risdlatw’l-Qushayriyya, by Abu’l- 
Qasim al-Qushayri (d. A.D. 1074); and, greatest of all, 
the Ihya’u ‘Ulam ad-Din, by al-Ghazali (d. A.D. IIII). 
It was this book that dispelled the fears of the Moslem 
world as to the orthodoxy of Sufism, and therefore did 
much to facilitate the popular movement which led to 
the formation of the dervish orders, a movement which 
very probably commenced under the influence of Abd 
al-Qadir al-Jilani, who died only fifty-five years later. 
&. The transitional period is quite admirably portrayed 
in the life of Abu’l Hasan ash-Shadhili. As those who 
know Arabic literature will acknowledge, that which 
we in the West recognize as biographical material is 
generally wanting in it; but, fortunately, in a small 
book issued by the Shadhili Order, we have a real picture 
of Mohammedan life in North Africa in the beginning 
of the twelfth century A.D., which bears internal evidence 
that it was compiled from contemporary sources. 
Ash-Shadhili was brought up in the ordinary Koranic 
school of his village, Ghamara, in Morocco, possibly also 
in Fez, but moved when yet quite young to Tunis. He 
early became interested in Sufi teaching, his interest 
deepening into a veritable quest. He heard that the 
saint of saints, the Qutb-al-Ghawth (Axis of Aid), was 
to be found in Iraq; he therefore set out right across 
North Africa, through Arabia, to Mesopotamia in search 
of the Qutb, hoping through him to be initiated more 
fully into the gnosis, the. esoteric knowledge of 
God. We read of encounters with wild beasts and 


294 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


evil men, we read of the jealousy and persecution of 
scholastic theologians, we read of miracles that God 
performed on behalf of His servant, and of wonderful 
mystical experiences which he encountered on the way. 
On arrival in Iraq, the reputed Qutb told him that he 
was mistaken ; the one whom he sought was in Morocco, 
living a hermit life in a cave near Ras-al-Jabal. Ash- 
Shadhili made his way back the three thousand odd 
miles, and found it even so. Both journeys were full 
of incident. They comprised quite long stays in some 
of the towns, just how long we cannot learn; pupils 
attached themselves to him in each town; he had con- 
siderable influence on the rulers of the countries, con- 
firming what we gather from other sources of the power 
the saints wielded in affairs of government at that period. 
The more enthusiastic pupils left all to follow him when 
he moved off on his quest ; as we read we are strongly 
reminded of the schools of the prophets and of that lower 
form of prophetism, hints of which are to be found 
throughout the whole history of Israel after the entry 
into Canaan. 

Having met the Qutb and stayed with him some days, 
he professed to have received great inward knowledge of 
God and of the things of God and the assurance that he 
himself was to be the future Qutb, God’s pivot of the 
universe. After this we read of several more pilgrimages 
to Mecca and a growing reputation as a saint, especially 
in Egypt. We get glimpses of popular interest in his 
movements, his teachings, and his miracles. Incidentally 
we get a new conception of the unity of the Moslem world, 
with its constant pilgrim caravans moving to and from 
Mecca, generally counting in their numbers one or more 
' notable Sufi saints, their protection to the caravan 
more greatly prized than that of a band of soldiers. 


MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 295 


Their words and works form the main topic of conver- 
sation through the weary months of travel, and, as the 
pilgrims return once more to their homes, they bring 
with them many wonderful tales of the saints that 
accompanied them, and of others they have met, and the 
still greater number of those of whom they have heard. 
One often is astonished at the remarkable unity of the 
Moslem world, even its uniformity in so many respects ; 
perhaps these great and leisurely pilgrim caravans 
during all the centuries prior to the advent of the loco- 
motive and steamboat may supply us with the reason. 
Abd al-Oadir al-Jilani died about thirty years before 
ash-Shadhili was born, but Ahmad al-Bedawi, who is 
generally looked upon as the founder of dervish orders in 
Egypt, died some nineteen years only after ash-Shadhili, 
and it is doubtful whether the full organization of their 
orders took placein their life-time. In the lives of both 
al-Jilani and ash-Shadhili we getithe picture of the whole 
world going after the more notable of the saints, from 
the Sultan on his throne to the poorest vendor in the 
streets. That the movement towards definite organization 
began under Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani is maintained by 
the orders themselves. He was a great teacher at Bagh- 
dad, and became so popular that no building in the city 
was found large enough to hold his audiences. He seems 
to have been pre-eminently a preacher, and several 
collections of his sermons are still procurable in the 
ordinary Arab bookshops; but the remarkable thing is 
that, though admirable as sermons, probably quite the 
best in Islamic literature, they are singularly devoid 
of mystic lore or of principles that could have moulded 
the customs and practices of the orders. This is also 
true of most of the standard works of the dervish orders ; 
one looks for mysticism and finds orthodoxy. It is 


296 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


puzzling why this should be. Is it that they fear their 
esoteric teaching may by the printed page become 
available for the uninitiated, or is it their eagerness to 
convince the schoolmen that they are orthodox? A 
suggestion for the development of the Qadiriya Order, 
which is worth serious consideration, is based on the 
fact that Abd al-Qadir had forty-nine children, and 
that at least eleven of his sons followed him as teachers 
in his school of mysticism, and several travelled and 
became heads of Qadiri orders in other countries, notably 
Spain. It may be to the organizing ability of one of 
them that we must look for the system which is prac- 
tically the basis of all dervish orders. 

The organization is so good, and the dervishes can be 
so readily marshalled and a fanatical fighting force so 
quickly mobilized from peaceful peasants and pedlars, . 
that all foreign governments desiring to maintain their 
power in Mohammedan countries have had to invent 
some secret method of controlling the orders. Even at 
the present time in Egypt, when dervishism has tre- 
mendously dwindled from the effect of the impact of 
Western civilization, one’s first impression, on seeing 
a great dervish procession, as on the Prophet’s birthday, 
is that of its disreputability; but, as one continues to 
see order after order pass with its banners, the impression — 
grows of an immense latent and possibly sinister power. 

At the head of each order there is a Sheikh al-Sajada. 
He is either an hereditary descendant of the founder of 
the order or one who owes his position to what might be 
termed a species of “ apostolic succession,” each head 
of such an order appointing his successor and investing 
him with the official cloak, or turban. The sajdda is 
generally the traditional prayer-carpet, or sheep-skin of 
the founder of the order, who, though dead perhaps for 


MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 297 


almost six centuries, has a very effective place in all its 
functions. This is specially true of Abd al-Qadir al- 
Jilani, who is a very living and beloved personality to 
every Qadiriya dervish, and a little knowledge of whose 
life and most famous sayings will be found to be an 
“open sesame ”’ to the heart of many a dervish, even to 
those who belong to other orders. 

The Sheikh al-Sajada generally has four young hench- 
men, or nugaba. These form his innermost circle of 
pupils, and usually it is one of these who follows him 
in office in those orders where the headship is by appoint- 
ment. 

The next official is the Wakil Sheikh al-Sajada, the 
agent or substitute of the head of the order. It is he 
who is usually the active, organizing head, the Sheikh 
al-Sajada sometimes being an infant in the hereditary 
orders and in the others being more noted for the con- 
templative ecstatic life than for the administrative. The 
orders very often have considerable material effects 
that need careful administration, besides the natural 
duty the Wakil has of holding together a widely scattered 
order with a host of minor officials responsible to him. 

Next in order comes the Khalifa, who is the local 
representative or vicar of the Sheikh al-Sajada. In 
large cities there may be many Khuldfa of the same 
order, in which case one bears the name of Khalifat al- 
Khulafa, vicar of vicars, and is the responsible local 
head. 

Then come the great mass of Ikhwan, or brothers. 
These comprise both fully initiated dervishes who are 
wholly given over to the contemplative life and earn 
a bare subsistence in a very humble walk in life, and 
those whose connexion with the order is more or less 
loose and who are engaged in the ordinary pursuits of 


298 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


life, like the tertiaries of the old monastic orders. To 
this latter class belong the great masses of the people, 
mostly quite illiterate, or having only the education 
of the Koranic schools. It is rarely that those who have 
had even a simple Western education join the orders ; 
by such the orders are despised. 

In addition to these heads and sub-heads there are 
teaching and initiating sheikhs who may or may not 
hold other office. They are generally called by the name 
of Am, a word which in ordinary language means a 
paternal uncle, but in the idiom of the orders is equivalent 
to the spiritual director of the monastic orders. The 
word possibly may have reference to the distinctive 
turban which he wears, and which in pre-Islamic times 
was given by the Arabs as a sign of acknowledged lord- 
ship. His apostolic succession of the gnosis is always 
given in terms of having been invested with this turban 
through an unbroken chain of sheikhs, often going back 
to the immediate entourage of the Prophet Mohammed. 

All small manuals of the orders have reference to the 
implicit obedience that must be paid by the novice to 
his Am. R.A. Nicholson, in his valuable book entitled 
The Mystics of Islam,1 to which the reader who desires 
to pursue this subject might well turn for his first studies, 
does not exaggerate in speaking of the obedience expected 
from the novice as “ grovelling submission to the autho- 
rity of an ecstatic class of men, dependence on their 
favour, pilgrimage to their shrines, adoration of their 
relics, devotion of every mental and spiritual faculty to 
their service,’ and as being deplorable in its practical 
results. But there still remains a worse feature, and that 
is that the novice must accept the saintliness of his 
teacher in spite of every evidence to the contrary. This 

1 London, 1914. 


MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 299 


most demoralizing position has for its foundation the 
encounter of Moses with the ever-living saint al-Khidr, 
recorded in the Koran, Sura, 18 : 64-81, and highly and 
grossly developed in dervish books to cover every form 
of open and flagrant vice. 

We have looked at the hierarchy of the orders, but to 
account fully for all the phenomena we meet we must 
seek to comprehend the extraordinary reality of the un- 
seen to the Eastern mind. Dr. Duncan B. Macdonald has 
brought this out well in his book entitled The Religious 
Attitude and Life in Islam. To the Mohammedans the 
unseen world all around is peopled with the saints of 
Islam. The true governors of the world are the members 
of the parliament of saints, which meets every night in 
the more immediate heavens; living saints take part 
in this with the departed ones; the chief of all the 
saints, the Qutb who presides, is always a living saint. 
No wonder, then, that the cult of saintsis the outstanding 
feature of the Moslem masses, and that it has restored 
to Islam all the features of a gross animistic idolatry 
which had almost disappeared on the first impact of the 
original militant monotheism. 

We are confining ourselves, in this article, to things 
as they are and not dealing with the idealistic system 
that has been conceived and developed by some of 
Islam’s best thinkers and has been the stimulus to much 
of its best poetry. One does, on rare occasions, meet 
individuals who really seek to use these systems in their 
quest of the knowledge of God; one does occasionally 
meet men who have some claim to saintliness. But 
these are so rare that the student wishing to obtain 
first-hand information of the orders is often tempted 
to think that he has been misled in believing that the 


1 Chicago, 1909. 


300 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


religion of the dervishes is the real religion of the Moslem 
masses. On every hand he finds complete ignorance of 
the system, even of the simplest technical terms of the 
orders; he finds the teaching sheikhs to be gross im- 
postors, vile parasites of the Moslem community; he 
finds the officers using their office to make a living by 
cheap magic. But if he goes further in his studies, and 
especially if he lives with an open and observant mind 
amongst the people in towns and villages least affected 
by Western influences, he will come to see how far-reaching 
are the influences of Islamic mysticism. 

The ultimate proof of the falsity of any philosophy les 
in its outworking in following generations. This is 
especially true of the pantheistic and mystical philosophies 
that underlie the religion of the dervishes. In their 
beginnings often very attractive, they produced some 
noble lives and they inspired much of the very best 
of Islamic poetry; but undoubtedly their full fruit is 
to be found in the debasing ideas of the Moslem masses 
of to-day. They may use the dervish prayers, some of 
which are beautiful, and also the zzkyv, or repetition of 
special phrases designed for the purification of the soul’s 
diseases, wholly with the idea of piling up merit; they 
may attend the public performance of zikvs only because 
of the pleasurable emotions there stimulated; their 
minds may be wholly uneducated and densely ignorant ; 
yet it will be found that the really formative influences 
that mould their lives are to be found in the mysticism 
which has degenerated into dervishism. 

Missionaries going to Moslem lands are apt to take 
for granted that the religion of the land is the religion 
of the Koran and the Traditions; they may become 
skilful in dialectics, and remove every ground for further 
belief in Islam, and yet never touch the true heart religion 


MYSTICAL LIFE IN MODERN ISLAM 301 


of the people. The whole vast problem of a sympathetic 
approach to the masses of Islam remains as yet practically 
unsolved, and it will remain so as long as there exists the 
tendency to leave the subject as a specialized study for 
the few. Every missionary to Moslems must get to 
work at it, and must supply his information to the mis- 
sionary body asa whole. It is not so much the informa- 
tion of Orientalists and experts that we desire as the 
practical advice of missionaries who can tell us how 
to convince these people that they are being beguiled 
of their “‘ reward in a voluntary humility and worshipping 
oi angels ’’ by men who are “ vainly puffed up ”’ by their 
fleshly minds, “which things have indeed a show of 
wisdom in will-worship, and humility, and neglecting 
of the body ; not in any honour to the satisfying of the 
flesh,” and who can tell us how to present to them in 
an acceptable way ‘the riches of the glory of this 
mystery ... which is Christ in you, the hope of glory.”’ 


apa iy BY 
Dyih iy . * ‘ 


. ra 
sae sania 


Pf 


ye a. 
mete - 


he oe it on wet, { 


ni 


‘$s; myth hry 


botish ny 


AS Saag 


bibed 


OY 


a inodd 4 we 


hh all le Sa ‘ 


‘ ra vas 


ia 


Mudoe F 


vie 





NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 


BY THE REV. 
ARTHUR JEFFERY, M.A., M.RA.S., 


Professor, School of Oriental Studies, American University, 
Cairo 


~ ae: ee 


chy Ae 
q c rial ye 


Nea as , A 


Sa ah ‘ Ws Fg 'e ' 
. ‘. ies ‘ ‘ 7 ia 


we i “eit he ta a 





CHAPTER XX 
NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 


THE contacts with Western life and thought have not 
been without their influence on the apologetic literature 
of Islam which rises out of the perennial religious con- 
troversy between Islam and Christianity. On the one 
hand, there has been a stirring of new life in the old ortho- 
dox apologetic; and, on the other hand, the new intel- 
lectualism which has come about as a result of Western 
education, and which has brought to birth the reform 
movements of India and Egypt, and the heretical sects, 
such as the Bahais and the Ahmadiyas, has resulted 
in an entirely new type of apologetic written from these 
new points of view. 

The apologetic literature of the old orthodoxy at the 
present day is little more than a rehash of the old work 
of Ali Tabari, Ibn Hazm, and Ibn Taymiyya, who all 
wrote before the fifteenth century; but there is a new 
note of “ awakeness ’’ to modern conditions in many of 
the pamphlets and tractates called forth by the successful 
work of Christian missionaries in Egypt, Syria, Turkey, 
or India. Some are urgent warnings to Moslems against 
Christian hospitals and schools, and against the circula- 
tion of Christian books. And some are replies to Christian 
books whose effective attack has roused Moslems to 
counter-attack. One such pamphlet, very well known 
in Cairo, is called Poisoned Arrows: A Reply to those 

21 305 


306 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


who Disturbed the Thoughts, Pretending they were En- 
lightening the Minds: Arrows Aimed at the Breasts of the 
Rascal Preachers. | 

Both in the attacks on Christianity and in the defence 
of Islam there is a valiant attempt to adapt the new 
arguments to modern circumstances. Two very in- 
teresting instances of this are: (a) the curious attempts 
being made to defend polygamy and hold it up as a 
solution of the social evil; and (d) the endeavours to 
defend Mohammed. The unorthodox, of course, can 
throw tradition overboard, and thus get rid of uncom- 
fortable facts handed down about the Prophet. The 
orthodox writer, however, is bound to acknowledge 
these facts. So they have evolved the theory of the all- 
round man. Every prophet, they say, came with a 
special message to his own age. The age of Jesus was 
given up to debauchery and needed an example of as- 
ceticism ; so Jesus was an ascetic. But Mohammed was 
the seal of the prophets, the culmination of the prophetic 
line ; so it was necessary that he should give men an 
all-round example. He was married to give men an 
example of married relations; he went to war to give 
men an example of courage in the fight ; andsoon. In 
answer to the question why Mohammed needed so many 
wives, they say that marriage is the most important 
of human relationships, and men need more detailed 
example there than in other things; so, as men marry 
different types of women, it was necessary for the Prophet 
to give in his own life an example of how life should be 
lived with each kind of woman. Thus, with Khadija, 
he gave an example of how to live with a wife older than 
oneself; with ‘Aisha, how to live with one younger than 
oneself; and so on, with all his wives according to their 
several types. 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 307 


Turning to the unorthodox and reforming apologetic, 
we find that it turns round much the same problems as 
the older, orthodox polemic, but is characterized by a 
new attitude. 

In the first place, it is better instructed. When the 
Shulamite maiden in Canticles 5: 16 tells the daughters 
of Jerusalem that her beloved is “ altogether lovely,” 
the older apologetic found in the Hebrew word Mah- 
madim a prophecy of the coming of Mohammed. The 
new controversialist is sensitive to the crushing weight 
of philological argument, and makes no such blunder. 
The older apologetic, again, made great collections of the 
so-called miracles of Mohammed, and was content to 
record such incidents as the following, set forth in the 
Izhar al Haqq. 


“It is said that Jabar one day killed a sheep, and, 
after he had prepared it and cooked it, he served it to 
the Prophet at table. Everyone ate of it, but the Prophet 
said, ‘Eat, but do not break the bones.’ When they 
had finished, the Prophet put the bones together, placed 
his hands over them, and muttered a few words, and 
lo! the sheep became whole again, got up, and wagged 
its tail.” 


The modern apologetic has faced up in some measure 
to the facts of modern knowledge and the demands of 
modern scholarship, and tries to write its new apologetic 
in terms of this. 

Secondly, it is freer. It is not bound by tradition, as 
is orthodox Islam. The Bahais get out of this difficulty 
by teaching that with the Bab there came a new revela- 
tion which superseded that of orthodox Islam. A new 
start was again made in Baha’ullah, who superseded the 
Bab, and so all the authority of the earlier dispensation 
has come to an end, and they are free to write their 


308 ‘THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


new apologetic in the light of the new revelation. The 
Ahmadiya Movement, also, to some extent found the 
same freedom through teaching the Messiahship of its 
founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian. The ration- 
alistic reformers, both those of the Aligarh School in 
India and their confréres in Egypt, free themselves 
by making onslaught on the validity of tradition. Gold- 
ziher, in his epoch-making. Muhammedanische Studien,} 
has brought to a head for European Orientalists the 
-attack on Moslem Tradition, and has shown its 
utter worthlessness; but even earlier than Goldziher, 
the exigencies of the controversy with Christianity 
had forced Moslem writers in the East to seek to be freed 
from it. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the 
Aligarh Movement, led the way, and his disciples 
followed. 

Moulavi Cheragh Ali, in his Critical Exposition of the 
Popular ‘‘ Jihad,” * and his Proposed Political, Legal, and 
Social Reforms under Moslem Rule,’ for example, charac- 
terizes various Traditions as “spurious and fictitious,” 
“not based on any critical, historical, or rational prin- 
ciples,” “‘unblushing and fabulous,” “‘ one-sided and 
imperfect.”” Ameer Ali also pays scant respect to 
tradition, and Sir Abdur Rahim, in his Muhammadan 
Junsprudence,t states that “zeal gave rise to many 
a false and inaccurate Tradition.”’ So Muhammad Badr 
of Egypt, in his little book, The Truth about Islam,® tells 
us that in his school “ the Traditions as a whole are 
becoming more and more neglected, and the Qur’an is 
regarded in the light of pure reason and modern science.”’ 


1 Ignacz Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, Halle, 1899. 

2 Calcutta, 1885. 3 Bombay, 1883. 

4 Abdur Rahim, The Principles of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, 
London. > Cairo, IgIo. 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 309 


Some of the Ahmadiya writers also have taken this way 
out. 

And not only is it tradition from which they seek 
to free themselves, but from the whole body of law which 
has grown up through the centuries around the primitive 
kernel of legislation contained in the Koran. 


“ Tt was only from some oversight,”’ writes Cheragh Ali, 
“ that in the first place, the civil precepts of a transitory 
nature, and as a mediate step leading to a higher reform, 
were taken as final; and in the second place, the civil 
precepts adapted for the dwellers of the Arabian desert 
were pressed upon the neck of all ages and countries. 
A social system for barbarism ought not to be imposed 
on a people already possessing higher forms of civiliza- 
ton. 3 


This freedom, of course, gives them the right of private 
interpretation, and makes it possible for them to make 
a new face to the attacks of Christianity. 

Thirdly, it has newer and better weapons, using 
Christianity’s own methods and availing itself of weapons 
provided by modern rationalism and other movements 
in the West. At its feeblest this is seen in the readiness 
of the Moslems of the new movements to adopt Christian 
methods of propaganda. For example, there is a Muslim 
Book and Tract Depot, at Lahore; and Hamid Snow, 
an English convert to Islam, has produced a Moslem 
Prayer Book and Catechism. Sheikh Rashid Ridha has 
made great plans in Cairo for a Missionary Training 
School to equip missionaries of Islam to proceed to 
Christian countries. Sheikh Shawish’s ill-fated maga- 
zine, Al-Hidayah, was an effort to copy Christian 
religious magazines. The Ahmadiya Movement par- 


1 Moulavi Cheragh Ali, A Critical Exposition of the Popular 
** Jihad,’ p, xcii, Calcutta, 1885. 


310 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


ticularly, both in its organization and in its publications, 
follows closely the Christian model, and the Bahai 
propaganda is shot through and through with Christian 
ideas. 

At its keenest, this third characteristic is seen in the 
diligent way in which the anti-Christian material pro- 
duced in the West is used to attack the work of the 
Christian missionaries in the East. Sometimes this is 
used in rather an insincere way, as by the Syrian writer 
Salim at-Tannir, who has exploited many of the ultra- 
critical theories of European writers in order to make 
it seem to the Moslems of the East that what is being 
preached by the missionaries is no longer believed by the 
intellectuals of the West. Usually, however, it is used 
quite sincerely as a new weapon of offence. Examples 
of this are Sheikh Rashid Ridha’s use of the “‘ Pagan 
Christs ’’ theory of Drews and J. M. Robertson, in order 
to prove that the great doctrines of Christianity are little 
more than a working over of old pagan theology; or 
Sheikh Hifnawi’s attempt in his Kafayat at-Talibin to 
work up evidence that modern Christianity is based, not 
on the Scriptures, but on the traditions of the Fathers. 

A very interesting illustration of this point is found 
in a curious volume that would appear to be unique in 
the annals of Moslem polemic. It is called Al-Madhhab 
av-Ruhant (The Spiritual Sect) by Abdallah Abahi, 
and gives a long account of the origin and growth of 
Spiritualism, and its rapid spread among the Western 
nations, expounds and defends the main teachings of 
Spiritualism, and then, from this ground, proceeds to show 
that, while Islam can agree with the results of such 
teaching, Christianity cannot and thus is self-condemned. 

Full advantage has also been taken of all favourable 
references to Islam in the works of European writers. 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 311 


The Muslim Tract Depot of Lahore, for instance, publishes 
typographically attractive pamphlets giving the favour- 
able judgments of Carlyle, Bosworth Smith, and others. 
In Cairo there has been published in Arabic a translation 
of Tolstoi’s favourable account of Mohammed and 
Islam. The Woking group have been even more am- 
bitious, and have published by private subscription 
such considerable works as John Davenport’s Apology 
for Muhammad and the Qur'an, and the seventeenth- 
century lucubration of one Henry Stubbe, or Stubs, An 
Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism, 
with the Life of Mahomet and a Vindication of him and 
his Religion from the Calummies of the Christians. 

This newer apologetic, of course, is addressed in the 
main to a new public, the Western-educated classes, and 
much of it is intended for European consumption rather 
than for use in the East. Both in India and in Egypt 
we find considerable use made of the English language. 
Anti-Christian pamphlets are published in North Africa 
in French, and the compendious Izhar al Hagq has been 
issued in that language. The Ahmadiya community 
has works in English, French, and German, and we hear 
occasionally of the prospects of a magazine in Japanese. 

The apologetic is naturally two-sided—an attack on 
Christianity, and a defence of Islam. The attack on 
Christianity mainly concerns the validity of the Scriptures 
and the great Christian doctrines of the Trinity, the Per- 
son of Christ, and Redemption. The defence of Islam 
in turn is mostly as relates to the Koran as the Word of 
God, the Prophetship of Mohammed, and such questions 
as holy war, the position of women, etc. 

In its attacks on Christianity, the older apologetic 
was largely contented to make long collections of supposed 
contradictions and variations in the historical accounts 


312 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


of Chronicles as compared with Samuel and Kings, or 
among the four Evangelists. For example, 2 Samuel 
xxiv: I, states that God moved David to number the 
children of Israel, while r Chronicles xxi: 1, says that 
the instigator was Satan. Or, again, Matthew, in chapter 
viii, tells of the cleansing of the leper after the Sermon on 
the Mount, then the curing of the centurion’s servant 
after Jesus entered Capernaum, and lastly the cure of 
Peter’s wife’s mother. In Luke, however, the cure of 
Peter’s mother-in-law came first (chapter iv), then that 
of the leper (chapter v), and later the centurion’s servant 
(chapter vii). And soon, as is drawn out in great detail 
in such works as the Izhar al Haqq, Al-Ajwiba as-Saniya, 
Lisan as-Sidg, and many other of the old polemical 
masterpieces. The new school, however, is much more 
subtle. Dr. Tawfiq Sidqi, a disciple of Sheikh Rashid 
Ridha, is a good example of their method. In his Nazra 
fi Kutub al Ahad al Jadid, he utilizes such works as 
Cassel’s Supernatural Religion,! to work out an argument 
against the authenticity of the New Testament. First, 
the uncertainties of patristic testimony are worked 
up to demonstrate the weakness of the external evidence 
for the Gospels’ being the work of their traditional 
authors. Then internal evidence is examined in detail, 
and John’s Gospel, for example, is disposed of by the 
author’s supposed ignorance of the topography of Pales- 
tine. Attempts are also made to find origins of New 
Testament incidents and logia in Talmudic and other 
sources. Thus, Matthew’s story of the Temptations 
is asserted to have its origin in a Buddhist source claimed 
to be much older than Christianity ; and so on. 
Missionaries on the field no more see eye to eye on 
questions of Biblical criticism than their brethren at 
1 Walter R. Cassel, Supernatural Religion, New York, 1912. 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 3138 


home, and these writers have been quick to take advantage 
of this fact by entrenching themselves in positions from 
which they know quite well the liberal scholar can drive 
them, but dare not for fear of betraying the position of 
his more conservative brethren. 

It is noticeable, also, that the theory of the Abrogation 
of the Christian Scriptures has dwindled to quite in- 
significant proportions in the works of the newer school. 
In the Woking version of the Ahmadiya Commentary 
on the Koran,! for instance, we find that in the interests 
of the new apologetic for the Koran the orthodox doctrine 
of Abrogation in the Koran is denied 7m toto, and con- 
sequently the claim of the abrogation of previous Scrip- 
tures has to be toned down to a statement that a new 
and universal law like Islam of course supersedes a 
national and limited legislation like that of Moses. 

The old orthodox argument was to accuse Christianity 
of polytheism, and to prove that it was contrary to 
reason to believe in a metaphysical puzzle like the Trinity 
or to believe that God was capable of generation. Sheikh 
Rashid Ridha and his followers here again draw on Drews, 
Kalthoff, and J. M. Robertson to prove that the Christian 
ideas are but a rehash of paganism. More effective, 
however, is a recent writer, Mr. Muhammad Amir Alam, 
in an interesting little book, Islam and Christianity,’ 
in which he maintains that Jesus may be called the 
Son of God in a moral and spiritual sense, yet in that 
same sense we are all in some measure equally sons of 
God. He quotes very effectively in this connexion 
from Dr. Rashdall’s speech at the Conference at Cam- 
bridge in the summer of 1921, on the real humanity of 

1 Maulvi Muhammad Ali, The Holy Quyr’an, containing the 


Arabic Text with English translation and Commentary, Woking, 
1917. * Calcutta, 1923. 


314 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


Jesus, though apparently he has not grasped the full 
significance of all that scholar’s words. 

The Bahais have taken over into their system the 
concept of Incarnation, and their attitude on the question 
is that, while Jesus was certainly the Incarnate Word, 
God manifest in the flesh, yet He was a manifestation 
only for His own day. Incarnation did not stop with 
Him, and in our day Baha’ullah was the Divine Essence 
manifested in human form. 

One might have expected a similar claim to have been 
made by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, who founded 
the Ahmadiya community; but, while he claimed to be 
the Messiah and to come in the spirit and power of Jesus, 
he has only ridicule for the divine Sonship and the 
Trinity. On the latter, indeed, he could stoop to write 
in the Review of Religions, vol. 1, p. 280: 


“The manner is very amusing in which the three 
Persons of the Trinity shifted the responsibility of the 
reformation of mankind from one to the other. There 
was the Father, who, having a certain superiority, in 
name if not in reality, thought of restoring man to his 
original state—one should think it means the savage 
state, for the human progress has been gradual from a 
lower to a higher stage—but he found his hands tied by 
the strong manacles of justice. Out of filial reverence 
the Son offered himself, but when he came into the 
world he went away with the empty consolation that 
the third partner shall come and teach them all truths 
and guide them into all truth. The third Person, being 
only a pigeon, found himself unable to undertake the 
teaching of truths, but thought he had done his duty by 
teaching the Apostles a few dialects, which they were 
thus able to speak stammeringly.”’ 


The very core of the matter, of course, is redemption, 
and curiously enough it is the modern writers who are 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 315 


mostly concerned with it. Muhammad Din, the head 
of the Ahmadiya community in Chicago, goes to the 
heart of the difficulty when he writes: ‘‘ A Moslem has 
to reject crucifixion, because otherwise he has to believe 
in the supreme value of sacrifice.”’ } 

Some writers argue against the ‘‘ barbarous nature ”’ 
of the doctrine, maintaining that “ evolution ’”’ has led 
us beyond such conceptions as lie behind the Christian 
theory. This very modern attitude of the Western- 
educated, evolution-indoctrinated Moslem, is taken by 
Amir Alam in the work above mentioned. Thus he 
writes (p. 27): 


“This doctrine is worse than unnatural. It is bar- 
barous. The notions of vicarious atonement may be 
traced to the savage custom of sacrificing an animal 
for the expiation of sins. Its roots lie deep down in the 
prehistoric idea of primitive heathenism, or in the un- 
developed brain of a fetish worshipper of the Dark 
Continent. It establishes to the hilt the fetish wor- 
shipper’s notion of animal sacrifice to appease his angry 
spirits. This is horrible—-too horrible for a modern man. 
To think of the innocent Lamb of Nazareth as having 
been sacrificed on the cross for the redemption of the 
sins of mankind by the Just and Merciful God, is too great 
a contradiction... God_is just.’’ 


Sheikh Rashid Ridha has devoted a special brochure, 
Aqidat as-Salb wa’l-Fida (Belief in Crucifixion and Re- 
demption) to giving an exposition of his “‘ Pagan Christs ”’ 
theory. He works along his usual lines, showing that 
some early Christian heretical sects did not believe 
that Christ had died; that some modern European 
writers have evolved a ‘‘ swoon theory ”’ to explain the 
Resurrection ; that the conception of a God who dies 


1 The Moslem World, 1924, Pp. 23. 


316 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


and rises again was associated with various heathen 
salvation cults ; that originally there was nothing mystic 
about the death of Christ, but that later it was turned 
into a mystery by theologians who were acquainted 
with the old pagan mystery-religions. 

The founder of the Ahmadiyas was so impressed with 
the necessity of explaining away the Sacrificial Death, 
that he also revived the “‘ swoon theory,” and then added 
to it a garbled version of Nikolai Notovitch’s weird story 
that Christ had journeyed to India and studied the 
wisdom of its wise men. Notovitch made the journey 
take place before the baptism by John, but the Mirza 
apparently had forgotten the details of the story, so he 
makes the visit take place after Jesus had recovered 
from the swoon on the cross, and links this story to his 
theory that the Afghans are the “lost tribes’ of Israel, 
the ‘‘ lost sheep of the House of Israel ’’ to whom Jesus 
came to preach. He even asserted that he had found 
the tomb of Jesus in Srinagar in Kashmir, where he was 
buried after reaching the age of one hundred and twenty. 

As regards the defence of Islam, the old orthodoxy 
' has written a whole library of books on the miraculous | 
~ eloquence of the Koran and its sublime beauties. Rah- 
matu'llah says that its divine nature is proved by the 
fact that one never grows tired of reading it. Ibn 
Taymiyya says that, since the smallest verse of the 
Koran is a miracle of eloquence and elegance, the whole 
book contains thousands of miracles. Al-Jili says that 
all that is contained in all religious books is contained 
in the Koran, that all the Koran is contained in-the 
opening sura, that all the sura is contained in the Bis- 
millah (the conventional phrase which heads each sura’ 
but one), that all the Bismillah is contained in the B, 
and all that is in the B is contained in the point that | 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 317 


is beneath it in the Arabic script. This attitude has 
naturally been reflected in the older apologetic, which 
devotes considerable space to elaborating the proof of 
the divine qualities of the Koran. 

“Tn the modernist books this type of argument is 
conspicuous mostly by its absence. Certainly they 
argue that the Koran is a divine book and the final 
revelation from God, but theyare keenly alive to the results 
and methods of Biblical criticism, and will make no 
claim that may entangle them in an impossible position. 
In fact, the modern school works almost exclusively at 
attempts to reinterpret the Koran in the light of modern 
knowledge. Its vivid realism is taken as symbolical, 
the sensual joys of Paradise being symbols of spiritual 
delights (a theory as old, however, as the Mu‘tazilites) ; 
its limited morality and historical blunders are carefully 
explained away; and a book is produced which would 
hardly be recognized by the old orthodoxy. Muhammad 
Badr, for example, writes !: 


“The ultra-figurative language of the Qur’an lent 
itself to such misconstruction to a peculiar degree. The 
stories told in many cases, when regarded in their true 
light of rhetoric device, are allegories of most poetic 
fashion. Read literally, they are incredible.”’ 


The result is the rise of a new type of commentaries. 
In Cairo these are appearing in Arabic. There is Tan- 
tawi’s Tafsir, of which only the first part has yet appeared, 
which claims to be able to find aeroplanes, electricity, 
etc., all foretold in the Koran, and which performs 
wondrous acrobatic feats of exegesis. There is Moham- 
med ‘“Abdu’s Tafsiy being edited by Sheikh Rashid Ridha, 
of which Parts 2~7 are on the market, Part 1 having 


1 The Truth about Islam, p. 25. 


318 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


been apparently suppressed. This commentary is 
characterized by all Mohammed ‘Abdu’s careful scholar- 
ship, and is a noble attempt at a rationalistic interpreta- 
tion of the Koran, not too far removed from orthodoxy. 
The most outstanding examples of this tendency, however, 
are the English commentaries produced by the Ahmadiya 
Movement. Each of the rival parties within this com- 
munity has made this attempt, but only that of the 
Woking group is complete. The old original party at 
OQadian have published the preliminary sections of their 
commentary and promise its speedy completion ; but their 
method, so far as one can judge from the parts issued 
already, does not seem to differ much from that of The 
Holy Qur'an; Containing the Arabic Text with English 
Translation and Commentary, by Maulvi Muhammad Ali, 
of Lahore. Here we find the Koran dressed up in Biblical 
garb, carefully doctored for English consumption. Let 
us take just one illustration of its method from the 
Sura of Joseph. 

First, the translation is doctored. Take, for example, 
the passage which tells of Jacob’s sight being restored. 
The story runs that Jacob had become blind through 
weeping for his lost Joseph; so, when Joseph revealed 
himself to his brethren in Egypt, and learned of his 
father’s condition, he sent his shirt to be cast in his — 
father’s face, whereat he would recover/his sight. Let. 
us place the two versions side by side (italics are ours) : 


Ordinary Version Ahmadiya Version} 

“Go with this shirt of mine *“Take this my shirt and 
and cast it on my father’s face, cast it before my father; he will 
(and) he will vecover his sight: come to know and come to me 
then come to me with all your with all your families.’ And 


1 Maulvi Muhammad Ali, The Holy Quyr’an, chapter xii: 
93-6, p. 493, Woking, 1917. 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 319 


Ordinary Version (continued) 


family.’’ Now when the cara- 
van set out their father said, 
“Verily I perceive the smell 
of Joseph, unless you are 
making mock of me.’”’ They 
said, “‘ By God, you are in 
your old error.’’ Then, when 
the bearer of good tidings 
came, he cast it on his face 
and he was restored to sight. 


Ahmadiya Version (continued) 


when the caravan had departed, 
their father said, ‘‘ Most surely 
I perceive the greatness of Jo- 
seph, unless you pronounce me 
weak of judgment.’’ They said, 
“By Allah, you are most 
surely in your old error.’’ So, 
when the bearer of good news 
came, he cast it before him; 
so he became certain. 


Secondly, the commentary is made to match. All the 
old commentators take the passage in its natural sense, 
and have various reasons to give for the healing properties 
of the shirt. But this is not to modernist taste, and a 
way out is found by giving forced meanings to certain 
words. He makes “ smell’? become “‘ power ”’ or “ pre- 
dominance,’ interprets “seeing’’ as “‘ mental percep- 
tion,’ and says that ‘‘ when Jacob saw Joseph’s shirt 
he would possess certain knowledge of Joseph’s abiding 
place.”” To get over the difficulty of a blind man’s 
seeing the shirt, he contends that the word in the 
previous sentence does not mean blindness of the 
eyes, but only “the filling of the eyes with tears.”’ 
The references to the Arabic authorities, whether 
lexicographers or commentators, are throughout quite 
misleading. 

Thirdly, there is continual suppression of fact. For 
instance, in this story wherever there is the possibility 
of suggesting that the Koranic story is an improvement 
on that of Genesis, the Biblical story is quoted and 
commented upon; but there is nothing said about the 
fragmentariness of the Koranic story which really assumes 
the Biblical record as its background, nor is there a word 
about the fact, perfectly well known to the author, 
that many of the Koran’s numerous embellishments on 


320 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the story of Genesis are merely reproductions of Jewish 
apocryphal tales from the Talmud and Midrashim. 

Much the same method of reinterpretation is followed 
in depicting the character of the Prophet. The new 
apologists take but little account of the old argument 
from the wondrous miracles of the Prophet, or of hunting 
for Old Testament prophecies which he may be claimed 
to have fulfilled. They seek rather to explain away 
what to Western eyes are the very obvious defects of 
his character, and present before us a highly idealized 
picture of— 

‘“‘ His complete trust in God, his refraining from showing 
the slightest impatience, his calm and severe manner, his 
noble and dignified manners, his unshaken activity and 
zeal in the performance of duties entrusted to him, his 
perseverance, his fearlessness of his enemies, his forgive- 
ness of injuries, charity, courage,” 


etc., which, of course, is just taking over the picture of 
Jesus and applying it to Mohammed, as Tor Andrae 
in his brilliant study ! showed was done in the work of 
the early theologians. It is curious to note that some 
Moslems have felt so strongly the contrast, when Moham- 
med has been compared with Jesus, that they have 
attempted to besmirch the character of the latter. Mirza 
Ghulam Ahmad, of Oadian, for instance, accused Jesus 
of having committed the sins of drunkenness, lying, 
cowardice, gross disrespect to his mother, blasphemy, 
rudeness, and fondness for the company of loose women. 
A little Syrian tract goes further in this direction, making 
charges so foul that they cannot even be recorded here. 

The modern attempts to explain away jihad, or the 
Holy War, follow the same lines. Words have to be 


1 Tor Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds in Lehre und Glauben 
seiner Gemeinde, Stockholm, 1918. 


NEW TRENDS IN MOSLEM APOLOGETIC 321 


given unusual meanings, traditions cast aside, and 
history interpreted to show that all Mohammed’s wars 
were defensive, and fighting for the faith save by spiritual 
weapons has never been part of Islam. So with regard 
to the position of women. Syed Ameer Ali’s essay on 
the Legal Position of Women in Islam is a masterpiece 
in the setting forth of half-truths in order to convey a 
false impression, and is sad reading when compared with 
a frank, sincere investigation such as Mansur Fahmy’s 
excellent monograph, La Condition de la Femme dans 
lV’ Islamisme. 

The conclusion one comes to, from the study of these 
works of modern Moslem apologetic, is that perhaps the 
greatest contribution Christianity can make toward 
the solution of the present problems of Islam is educa- 
tion. It is Western education that has caused the 
already enormous advances from the old position, and 
it seems very clear that larger doses of that same thing 
will reveal how untenable the present positions are. 
Christianity has nothing to fear from the fullest exposure 
to the light of modern knowledge. Islam has everything 
to fear, and, let it be said, everything to gain. 


22 


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CHRIST’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSLEM 


BY 
PAUL W. HARRISON, D.Sc., M.D., 


Medical Missionary of the Reformed Church in America, 
Kuwait, Arabia 


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Be a yh 





CHAPTER XXI 
CHRIST’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSLEM 


t. His VALUATION OF MEN 


“ Wuy don’t we allow you to come and set up a mis- 
sionary hospital here on the Pirate Coast?” The 
speaker was a Sharja merchant. ‘‘ Because, if we admit 
you, just behind you will come the English with a telegraph 
office and a consulate. And we, after that? Nothing 
but vassals! ’’ Nor was the man, in the bitterness of 
his hostility, a fool or blind, and the justification for his 
attitude has been given, not by alien rulers, but by the 
missionaries themselves. Do they not associate with 
these rulers and cultivate their friendship at every possible 
opportunity ? Do they not reckon a decoration by the 
alien power that rules the country as the achievement 
of a lifetime? A traveller returns home to announce 
that the greatest political asset of the colonial adminis- 
trators in a certain province is the reputation of the 
resident medical missionary. Thus it is that the Gospel, 
in its appeal to the hearts of the Moslems, must carry 
on its back the whole evil weight of Western imperialism. 

The trouble is that, deep down in his heart, the mis- 
sionary too often believes that the only hope of the 
Gospel lies in its support by Western bayonets. Unless the 
protection of Western Governments, with their military 


power, is given to the missionaries, their lives will not 
325 


326 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


be safe, and they cannot proclaim the Christian message. 
Unless that same worldly and un-Christian power is 
prepared to protect the lives of converts from Islam to 
Christianity, we shall never have any. To expose the 
converts to the rigours of persecution with no protection 
except that of God in heaven would be hopeless. To 
expect missionaries to live thus unguarded, outrageous. 

The Moslem understands this sort of thing. In his 
mind, too, religion and political imperialism are tied up 
in the same bundle. Every Moslem missionary is the 
advance agent for Moslem imperialism—an imperialism 
that is satisfied with nothing short of world dominion— 
and in this conflict of political imperialism he will fight 
to his last breath. 

But sometimes it is possible to escape from this reputa- 
tion. “I amnot an Engleezee. I am an Americanee,”’ 
and among the Arabs America enjoys a reputation for 
international unselfishness which I am afraid is un- 
deserved. So it seems possible that this missionary is 
not the advance agent of Western imperialism, in spite 
of his white skin. ‘“‘ What is your name ? ’’—this by the 
doctor to a venerable patriarch of the desert who had 
come to the Bahrein hospital for treatment. The man 
leaned over and whispered confidentially into the doctor’s 
ear: ‘“‘My name is Mohammed. I told the man who 
writes our names in the book at the door that my name 
was Khalid, for no doubt he is sending all our names 
back to America as converts to Christianity.”” The book 
at the door had been started so that discharged dispensary 
patients could be followed up, but we had to drop the 


plan. How foolish! One of the medical missionaries . 


‘whom I used to know treated free those who would come 
early and listen to an earnest Christian talk which preceded 
the clinic. Those who failed to listen to the talk were 


. ‘ 
eee ——— 


CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 327 


compelled to pay for their treatment. The Moslem 
understands this too. Determined, unresting propa- 
ganda in favour of a religious system he believes in. He 
is probably more or less of such a propagandist himself. 

The missionary, as a keen and enthusiastic lieutenant 
of Western imperialism, offers nothing new to the Moslem. 
Such things he finds in his own faith. This is equally 
true of the missionary who is simply a propagandist for 
a Western religious system. Extremes meet on this 
platform. The extreme liberal regards a redeemed 
social order as the Kingdom of God. It constitutes his 
whole religious system. In comparison individual re- 
demption is contemptible, if indeed it is not a pure myth. 
The extreme conservative names his system God’s will 
and glory. In that he sees something so inexpressibly 
_ great that the eternal destiny of men is that of insects 
in comparison. There is nothing in these ideas that 
puzzles the Moslem. He has beds for them both in the 
caravanserai of his own theology. 

But, when He talked with the woman at the well, 
Christ evidently believed that He was facing the supreme 
value of all eternity. He was not concerned about 
any religious system, and still less about any political 
imperialism. He was eager to save this woman. Here 
is something that the Moslem knows nothing about. 
That individual men are mere insects as compared with 
a religious creed or system he understands. That all 
the religious systems in the world, all the creeds, all the 
rituals, all the world’s ecclesiastical pronouncements, 
and all its political organizations are insects compared 
with individual men, the only real eternal value in God’s 
universe—this he does not understand. That we seek 
men because of their supreme incomparable value, be- 
cause they are the only thing on the earth beneath or 


828 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


in heaven above that God cares anything about—for 
the Moslem such an idea is treason to God and religion 
when seen from the outside, and a dazzling new truth, 
with divine power in it, when seen from the inside. 

This is a vision of truth that makes heavy demands 
upon the missionary. It means that an attitude of 
comradeship with these men must run deeper, if that be 
possible, than even the supreme objective of missionary 
work, which is giving men eternal life. Standing by 
itself, the desire to give men eternal life opens the door 
to very subtle and dangerous temptations. The Moslem 
recognizes this, even if the missionary does not. Every 
Pharisee was eager to give men eternal life, or would have 
been had his system been built on Christian theology. 
Zeal for men’s souls while we care not at all for them 
personally, detest their company, and prefer to keep 
away from all intimate acquaintance with them, is a 
very hideous form of hypocrisy. Christ loved men, 
loved to be with them, loved them for their own sake, 
and found pure joy in association with them whether 
or not there was an opportunity to preach. He was 
like a jeweller who loves to handle and study and admire 
pearls even though he makes no profit in the process : 
like an artist who loves to sit before fine paintings with 
no thought at all regarding their effect on his ability 
or wealth. The way to bring Christ’s message to the 
Moslem is to imitate His attitude. 


2. His FAITH IN THE TRUTH 


A boy from inland Arabia brought his friend to the 
Bahrein hospital for treatment. Both of them were 
members of the great Wahhabi fraternity, the most 
fanatical of the orthodox Sunni Moslem sects. During 


CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 329 


their stay the Shias of Bahrein celebrated the Muharram 
festival. The Shias are the great heretical sect of Islam, 
and the Muharram celebrations embody in a condensed 
form all their heresies. The boy went with me to see 
the celebration. He was overcome with horror. ‘“ Do 
you have such things in Nejd?”’ I asked, not for in- 
formation, but to draw him out. His reply came with 
difficulty because of the intensity of his repulsion. 
“Such things in Nejd? In the domain of Abdul Aziz ? 
They would be killed if they tried it.”” The words seemed 
to stick in the boy’s throat. He did not even call down 
God’s curse upon them. A little later we were visiting 
. a Shia district in Mesopotamia. It was a medical visit, 
and we were in high favour. One of my hospital assist- 
ants questioned the sheikh’s attendant accompanying 
us. ‘Are there any Sunnis here?” ‘‘ Sunnis?” re- 
peated the man in great contempt. “‘ Praise the Lord, 
there is not an infidel in all these parts.” 

This clash of rival coercive religious systems the 
Moslem understands. Nothing is more agreeable to his 
unregenerate nature. His history is made up of little 
else. Therefore he understands, unfortunately, a large 
amount of our missionary work. For coercion is of 
many kinds. Physical coercion, with death as the final 
penalty for resistance, is now, we hope, decades and 
centuries in the past, so far as we are concerned. But 
the milder forms of coercion, rewards for listening to 
the Gospel, and such punishment as we are in a position 
to inflict for refusing to listen—coercion of that sort is 
still with us. Intellectual coercion, hammering down 
old religious conceptions, and hammering in our new ones 
by sheer force of a superior intellect and training, is 
only now ceasing to be fashionable. How many books 
can be collected designed expressly to train missionaries 


3830 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


for just that sort of work? The Moslem understands ~ 
this sort of thing perfectly. He glories in it. 

“The trouble with your religion,’ I told a leader 
of the Wahhabi brotherhood, “‘ is that its foundation is 
coercion.’ | 

“‘ Coercion,” he replied, “‘ is not its foundation. Coer- 
cion is its crown.” 

Missionaries of that kind belong in the Moslem camp. 
A very different atmosphere surrounded Christ. He had 
such faith in the hostile crowds that He addressed and 
who eventually crucified Him, such a faith in them and 
in the truth, that He desired His message to receive no 
help whatever from any source. Naked and unadorned, 
unexplained and undefended, in its divine power Christ 
knew that it would draw men by virtue of its own inherent 
attractiveness, and save them once they accepted it. 
The clash of rival coercive systems the Moslem under- 
stands. Faith in a divine message and in men such as 
Christ showed, and such as He expects us to show, leaves 
the Moslem either utterly puzzled or divinely charmed. 

And this, too, makes profound demands upon the mis- 
sionary. We have the same message to carry that Christ 
had. We have every reason for the same faith in it 
that He showed. But no man can have the faith that 
Christ showed in His message unless he has, to some 
extent, the same comprehension of it that Christ had. 
Until something of the divine height and depth and 
breadth of that message is visible, its divine power will 
be as a fairy-tale. There never was, perhaps, a more 
unfortunate fad in missionary work than the present 
one which lays the major emphasis upon understanding 
the religious system of the people we work with. Ninety- 
nine out of every hundred missionaries would be far 
better advised to devote every hour sacrificed to an 


CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 331 


understanding of some non-Christian faith to a pro- 
founder study of their own message, and a deeper ac- 
quaintance with their own Christ. 


3. His UNIVERSALITY 


In the opinion of the Moslem true religion is insepar- 
able from its Arab attire. His dream of the universal 
triumph of Islam is simply the hope that the world will 
put on these Arab clothes, just as the Christian, and too 
often the missionary, hopes to see the day when the 
whole world will put on the political and social and 
religious clothes of the Anglo-Saxon. 

Christ was not concerned with these traits that are 
so dear to our Western hearts. He had never a word 
to say about cleanliness, or order, or thrift, nor even 
education or representative government. He sent forth 
His message in the superb confidence that it was suited 
to men who were hospitable but not clean, mystical 
instead of orderly, generous and not thrifty. This 
undisturbed confidence that the divine message will 
work out in all sorts of races diverse results in life and 
practice and creed, all according to the will of God, who 
is the source of the message and the power residing in it— 
such faith is the basis of the missionary’s universality, 
as it was of Christ’s. The Moslem finds it staggering 
and impossible, but none the less supremely beautiful. 


4. His CONCEPTION OF GOD 


But the evaluation of religious systems is as the dust 
of the balance in comparison with the supreme value of 
men, faith in the divine message as capable of winning 
men, not by means of coercion, but by virtue of the 
power of God which it contains, and confidence in its 


882. THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


universality based upon its divine character, All of 
these, new and outstanding contributions to the Moslem 
mind as they may be, are only scattered rays of the great 
incandescent divine truth which stands at the centre of 
Christ’s teachings, a truth not merely heretical but 
highly offensive to orthodox Islam, namely, that God, 
the omnipotent Creator, is not a distant judge, but an 
affectionate Father. ‘‘ Sahib,’ said an old man to me 
as he took me from the Sunday morning service to see 
his sick boy, “‘ I have listened to many sermons in the 
mosques, and I never heard anything like that before. 
Is it really true that God, the Creator of all things, the 
Almighty, looks down upon us with the eyes of a father 
upon his children ? None of our mullahs ever told me 
anything as beautiful as that.’”’ I have watched many 
audiences, large and small, listen to this good news, and, 
obnoxious as it is to orthodox Islam, I think I have 
never seen it presented without obviously captivating 
the listeners. This conception is not merely a new 
contribution to the spiritual furniture of a Moslem. It 
is not simply a useful addition to his comprehension of 
the universe. It revolutionizes the whole world in which 
he moves. 

I have never seen this truth fail to captivate those 
who listened, but that does not mean that those who 
listened became Christians. It is one thing to recognize 
the beauty of a conception, and quite another to be 
convinced of its truth. This idea, as simple as it appears, 
once it is accepted to be true simply turns the world 
upside down for the Moslem. Scarcely anything in the 
whole realm of family relationships is more fundamental 
than the fact that the father has individual relations 
with each of his children. The last thing wanted is 
for one child to coerce another and to dictate to him his 


CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 333 


relationships with their common father. Each child 
comes to his father himself, and the father takes personal 
and individual interest in him. But, if God is really our 
Father, this means that there is absolutely no place in 
religion for coercion and intolerance, and none for the 
conceit and self-satisfied superiority which is the backbone 
of Islam’s strength. It seems remarkable that this 
splendid conception of God, which stands at the centre 
of Christ’s revelation to us, has not been stressed more 
in dealing with Moslems. Possibly because too many 
Christians have not been dominated by it, as is indicated 
by the present epidemic of vituperative and even coercive 
intolerance in the Christian Church itself. For no man 
can be intolerant and coercive toward other Christians 
without rejecting the picture of God that Christ brought 
us and erecting in its place an idol of his own manu- 
facture. 

This conception of God gives us also a conception of 
salvation that goes beyond anything that the Moslem 
even understands. The Moslem feels the need for the 
forgiveness of sins, but he rejects all idea of Christ’s 
sacrifice as making that forgiveness possible. To the 
Western mind, the price which was paid for our for- 
giveness in the sacrifice of Christ has been the most 
appealing element in the whole divine work of redemption. 
Perhaps because the point has been the subject of much 
controversy, perhaps because the Arab mind differs 
from ours, the presentation of this seems to repel rather 
than attract him. To his realization of the need for 
forgiveness the Moslem adds a somewhat washed-out 
repentance as a necessary preliminary to forgiveness ; 
but that is all. The price of forgiveness he does not at 
all realize, and the climax and crown of the Christian 
view he knows nothing about, that forgiveness has for 


334 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


its object restoring the prodigal to his place in the 
family of God. 


5. His DEFINITION OF DISCIPLESHIP 


Christ’s definition of discipleship has also a strong 
attraction for the Moslem, an appeal as powerful perhaps 
as the great central vision of God’s Fatherhood itself. 
Not only is God our Father. Christ is our Good Shep- 
herd. Some years ago, in an effort to determine what 
aspect of Christianity makes the greatest appeal to the 
Moslem, we tried various presentations, all by means 
of intimate personal talks. The different reactions 
that the message produced were carefully written down, 
and at the end of the year we had some interesting 
records to study. The greatest appeal was made to 
these men by what might be called the mystical aspect 
of the Gospel, and of the material available we found 
the parable of the Good Shepherd the most useful of 
all. 

We learned another thing, the necessity for repeated 
presentation of the same material if the message is to 
be understood and appreciated. It is hard for us to 
realize the strangeness of the religious ideas that we 
bring to the Moslems, trained as they are in an entirely 
different atmosphere. The parable of the Good Shepherd, 
repeated every day for perhaps two weeks, leads to a 
comprehension of the truth that is very beautiful. “Sit. 
down here, sahib, and I will tell you the story to-day,” 
said a Kuttar Bedouin to me once after he had been with 
us about ten days. The Arabs are wonderful story- 
tellers, and Iam sure that he told it much more graphically 
than I had ever done. He explained how Christ wants 
to be a shepherd to those who are willing to follow; how, 


CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 335 


just as the shepherd leads his sheep out in the morning 
and finds them nice clean water to drink, and fresh green 
grass to eat, so the Good Shepherd leads us to those 
experiences, and that knowledge that will nourish our 
spirits, and give us strength of soul. He explained how, 
just as the shepherd protects the sheep from the wolves 
of the desert and from the thieves of the town, so Christ 
protects His sheep from the temptations that rise within 
their own hearts, and those that Satan sends against 
them from without. And, finally, the shepherd leads 
the sheep home as the sun is setting, and so Christ wants 
to lead us home to our Father’s house when our sun 
sets. The truth had penetrated far deeper than mere 
comprehension in that man’s mind: it was easy to see 
that it had gone down far enough to grip powerfully his 
very soul, 

The missionary working among Moslems becomes more 
and more convinced that the kernel of the Gospel comes 
to them as an entirely new contribution. They have 
little or nothing of its essential elements in the entire 
landscape of their minds. But the theory of the Gospel 
is a small contribution, if indeed it is any. The essential 
contribution of Christ to the Moslem lies in that real 
contact with God and that participation in the divine 
life which He offers. If the missionary can bring the 
Moslem to accept Christ, and so enter into eternal life, 
he has succeeded. Failing there, we have failed. The 
humanitarian aspects of missionary work have caught 
the public eye, and as a result the foreign missionary 
enterprise now enjoys an abnormal, indeed a very harmful 
degree of popularity. One of the reflex results of this 
popularity in essentially unChristian circles has been an 
increased emphasis upon the humanitarian by-products 
of the enterprise and their elevation to a false position 


336 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


as perhaps the real reason for carrying on missionary 
work at all. 

This is a complete reversal of Christ’s programme. 
The introduction of education and civilization first, and 
the redemption of individuals afterwards, is not the way 
He told us to do it. Moreover, experiments have been 
made, and they teach the same lesson. In Mesopotamia 
a full-fledged Anglo-Saxon political system has been set 
up. Western education has been introduced, a sanitary 
and health service has been organized. It has been done 
by men of great ability and of unquestioned integrity 
and good intentions. The result of that splendid ex- 
periment is that never have the Arabs of Mesopotamia 
been so dominated by greed as to-day. Their hearts 
have never been devoured by such acute unrest and 
discontent. Immorality and drunkenness have never 
been so common. Christ undoubtedly has a large 
contribution to make to the social order in Mesopotamia, 
but He has nothing to do with the present experiment. 
The contribution that Christ wants to make to Meso- 
potamia now is the redemption of individual Arabs. The _ 
social order that He will one day create will grow out 
of their minds, not out of ours. 

Moreover, it is not by attention to creeds that we 
shall accomplish the results that Christ wants. A very 
attractive young Arab in Bahrein became interested in 
the Gospel. He studied it earnestly for two years, and 
finally became thoroughly convinced of the fact that 
Christianity is the true religion. He was baptized, and 
in six months had made shipwreck not of his faith only, 
but of his old morality and diligence as well, ending 
with a more deteriorated character than before. 

It is possible to change the professed creeds of some 
men by physical force, and those of others by intellectual 





CHRIST AND THE MOSLEM 337 


arguments, but coercion of any sort is utterly unable 
to introduce the divine life into a man’s heart. What 
we need for that is missionaries who can spread it by 
contagion. Men of excellent ability and training are 
wanted, of course, but ability and training do not spell 
success in this enterprise. The missionary from within 
whom flow rivers of living waters, who is a radiant centre 
of divine life, is the man the situation demands. The 
man whose soul is dry had better work somewhere else. 
Our main business is to reflect Christ as a mirror, and 
the missionary who does that, however imperfectly, will 
not only be a magnet to attract the unreached Moslem : 
he will also be a guide and a helper to the recent convert. 
There are few greater pleasures for me than to sit on 
the floor of my Arab reception-room with two very 
splendid Christians drawn from Islam by a missionary 
of this type. It is not a meeting for formal instruction 
in doctrines or Biblical history. Each of us reads a 
passage from the Bible which has been a real transmitter 
of life to his own soul, and explains what he has found 
in the passage. We discuss the messages and pray to- 
gether, and find that a meeting of this sort really helps 
to bring the divine life into our souls, 

Christ, then, comes to the Moslem with a new vision 
of God and of man and of spiritual freedom. He offers 
a salvation which consists of a new relationship to God, 
and a participation in His divine life. The missionary’s 
task consists in showing men the vision, and in helping 
them afterwards to participate in the divine life. 


23 


; AC he 
MOAT 


: ea gist Me 4“ i Ah mh 
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naam Mi aig 
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THE ISSUE BETWEEN ISLAM AND 
CHRISTIANITY 


BY: 
ROBERT E. SPEER, M.A., D.D., 


Secretary, Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian 
Church in the United States of America 


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CHAPTER XXII 
THE ISSUE BETWEEN ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 


THERE is an issue between Islam and Christianity. 
Historically it was Islam that raised it. Christianity 
was already in the world with its message and claim. 
Islam arose to dispute and supersede these. But this 
bare statement needs various qualifications. 

In the first place, it appears to have been only corrupt 
or inadequate representations of Christianity with which 
Mohammed came into contact. We cannot be sure how 
widely he travelled or what his opportunities were for 
really knowing Christianity, but it would appear that he 
met it in forms far removed from spiritual truth and 
simplicity. Tradition records that he led a successful 
trade caravan for Khadija into Syria, where he encoun- 
tered Christianity of the type which had survived there 
with its almost polytheistic caricature of the doctrine 
of the Trinity and its exaltation of Mary into the place 
at least of the consort of the Deity. 

In the second place, the Koran and the Traditions 
adequately show that Mohammed had no true conception 
of Christianity at all, Both in the Koran and in the 
Traditions many of the references to the Bible or to 
Christian doctrine are grotesquely confused. ‘‘ Having 
heard a Mary mentioned in the story of Moses and 

1 William Muir, The Life of Mahomet, London, 1861, vol. ii, 


p. 19. 
341 


342 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


another in the story of Jesus, it did not occur to him to 
distinguish between them.” 1 And Mohammed’s know- 
ledge of Jesus and of His teaching was of the slightest, 
while the whole world of Paul’s thought was stranger 
to him. In reality, then, the issue of Mohammed with 
Christianity was with a Christianity with which pure 
Christianity would have an issue almost as deep. 

In the third place, Islam’s attitude, at the very first 
at least, was not one of clear hostility to Christianity. 
Mohammed’s view was that it simply preceded and 
prepared for him. ‘‘ Remember,” said he in the Koran, 
“when Jesus the Son of Mary said, ‘O children of 
Israel! of a truth I am God’s apostle to you to confirm 
the law which was given before me and to announce an 
apostle that shall come after me, whose name shall be 
Ahmad.’ ”’? 

And there are various friendly references in the Koran 
to Christians. “‘ Thou shalt certainly find those to be 
nearest in affection to them [i.e. to Moslems] who say, 
‘We are Christians.’ This, because some of them are 
priests and monks, and because they are free from 
pride.’ This kindly feeling did not last long, but 
the change was due, in the Moslem view, to the perversity 
of Christians, who ought to have recognized in their own 
Bible the prediction of Mohammed as a prophet to excel 
Jesus ‘ and who must have done so but for the corrup- 


tions and alterations in the Bible.’ Something of the 


earliest attitude of Mohammed has returned into modern 
Islam. A strong spirit of conciliation can now be found. 


1D. S. Margoliouth, Mahommed and the Rise of Islam, New 
York, 1905, p. 6. 

2 Koran; 61: 6, 3 Koran: 5: 85. 

4 W. Goldsack, Mohammed and the Bible, Madras, 1915. 

6 Sir Syed Ahmad, The Mohammedan Commentary on the Holy 
Bible, ‘‘ The Seventh Discourse.”’ 


OE aS ee ee ee 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 343 


Some hold that, after all, the various religions, Islam 
and Christianity among them, are only many different 
doors into the same house. 


“Standing opposite Fort William, a missionary heard 
the Mussulmans and Chinamen saying, ‘ There are very 
many gates into Fort William—there is an hospital 
gate, a water gate, and others. Now, sahib, it is just 
the same in regard to heaven. Chinamen get in at one 
gate, Mussulmans in at another, and Hindus in at 
another.’ ’’ 1 


Others hold that Islam is only a richer extension of 
the partial and preparatory revelation of Christianity, 
that both are expressions of the one true religion existing 
from the time of Adam to Mohammed, and propagated 
by all the great succession of 124,000 prophets, con- 
taining the same fundamental truths and moral precepts, 
but differing in outward and ceremonial observances. 
Still other Moslem reformers of to-day are ready to make 
many concessions regarding historical Islam in the 
interest of a broad and synthetic religious view. As 
Mr. Theodore Morison, the Principal of the Aligarh 
Muslim University, wrote, these reformers— 


ce 


. . . Believe that in their faith are enshrined the 
great truths of religion and morality, but that in the 
past they have misread the Word of God, and that narrow- 
minded mollahs have expounded it amiss.” ® 


Christians should be foremost to feel and to express 
the spirit of kindness and consideration. In our relations 
to Islam it is Raymond Lull, and not the Crusaders, that 
must furnish our model of approach : 


1W, A. Rice, Crusaders of the Twentieth Century, London, 
IQIO, Pp. 322-3. 
2 The Spectator, December 29, Ig00. 


344 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


‘“‘T see many knights going to the Holy Land beyond 
the seas and thinking that they can acquire it by force 
of arms; but in the end all are destroyed before they 
attain that which they think to have. Whence it seems 
to me that the conquest of the Holy Land ought not to 
be attempted except in the way in which Thou and Thine 
apostles acquired it, namely, by love and prayers, and 
the pouring out of tears and of blood.”’ ! 


But, while we are bound to welcome and to exceed 
any mood of conciliation which we may find in Islam 
to-day, we must not deceive ourselves on either of two 
points. In the first place, while Islam, as may be shown, 
is not the rigid and impregnably convinced power it has 
been deemed, there is still deep conviction there on the 
part of five groups: (a) sincere and thoughtful Moslem 
scholars, (b) men of reformed and tolerant views who 
believe that Islam has a place among the forms of ethnic 
religions, (c) mystics of deep emotional experience,’ 
(z@) simple-hearted people to whom the prayers and 
religious life of Islam are a habit of reality, and (e) the 
men to whom Islam is a social and political fanaticism. 
In the second place, Islam and Christianity are not the 
same religion, nor are they alike in either their primary 
or their secondary principles. Thoughtful Moslems are 
as clear on this point as we are. Our issue with Islam 
is not superficial. It is fundamental. I am sure that 
a thoughtful Englishman is right on this matter when 
he writes in a unique little book, Five Years in a Persian 
Lown : 


“In the case of Islam there are really not many [points 
in common] to note, and in support of this statement I 


1S. M. Zwemer, Raymond Lull, New York, 1902, pp. 52-3. 
* D. B. Macdonald, Aspects of Islam, New York, I9gII, pp. 
145-209. 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY B45 


may relate a story told by an officer of Indian troops. 
One day a Mohammedan, in the course of a conversation, 
said to him: ‘ Of course, sahib, your religion and ours 
are very near together. Your Christ is one of our 
prophets.’ My friend replied: “What do you mean? 
Of course Christ is one of your prophets, but to us He 
is more than a prophet; He is the Son of God, and the 
pattern of our lives. Besides, there is hardly a single 
practical point where Mohammedans and Christians are 
not entirely at issue. The man looked up and said: 
“Sahib, you have read the Quran, and you have read 
your Bible. I always make that remark to Christians : 
I made it to a padre the other day: and they almost 
always say, ‘“‘ Very true; Mohammedanism has a great 
deal in common with Christianity.” Well, Sahib, when 
they say that, I know that they have not read the Quran 
and they have not read their Bibles.’ ”’ 


And Mr. Malcolm sets down his own deliberate judg- 
ment : 


“In Mohammedanism, in spite of its greater preten- 
sions, almost every apparent truth crumbles into mere 
truism or actual falsity the moment that you try to 
make it the basis of anything practical. Also, the more 
I read of the life of Mohammed, the more convinced I 
am that the radical rottenness of the system is due to 
his original teaching. . I firmly believe that the diffi- 
culties in the Islam of to-day are due rather to the 
essential wrongness of the system than to its corruption 
by the masses,”’ } 


Of all the religions in the world, there is none as to 
which Christian missions are more justified and by which 
Christian missions are more demanded than Islam, The 
fundamental issue between Islam and Christianity is 


1 Napier Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town, New York, 
1905, Ppp. Vil, vill, 64, 65. 


346 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


found just where too often they are supposed to resemble 
each other, namely, in their idea of God. Each is mono- 
theistic. As over against idolatry and polytheism and 
pantheism, Christians feel a strong sense of agreement 
with Islam and they seem to themselves to breathe a 
purer air when they pass out of a Hindu temple, with 
its idols, and often its obscenity, into the austerity and 
simplicity of a Mohammedan mosque. And also there 
can be no doubt that Mohammed thought he was setting 
forth the true conception of God, which in some measure 
the Jews and Christians whom he knew had corrupted. 
Even so, however, he believed that it was the same 
God. ‘“ Our God and your God is one,”’ says the Koran. 
But they are not the same God at all. In the prevalent 
Moslem view there are seven attributes of God, and 
ninety-nine names. The attributes are life or unity, 
knowledge, power, will, hearing, seeing, and speech. 
The early Moslems, the companions of Mohammed and 
their followers, held, however, that inquiries into the 
nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. It 
was sufficient, as Mohammed had taught them, to— 
‘‘Say: He is God alone: 
God the eternal |! 


He begetteth not, and He is not begotten ; 
And there is none like unto Him.’’! 


Moslem apologists for Islam have sought to Christianize 
the God of Islam. Syed Ameer Ali first describes the 
Christian doctrine, and especially the historic view of 
Jesus and His revelation of God as Father, and then 
transfers the whole Christian conception to the Allah 
of Mohammed.? But the facts of history cannot be so 


. + hora) 112: 


* Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, London, Revised 
Edition, 1922, pp. 143-52. 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 347 


easily dissipated. The Moslem view of God has been seen 
both in itself and in its effects to be defective in its un- 
moral autocracy, its irresponsible fatalism, its implica- 
tion in human sin, the mere verbalism of its compassion, 
its inadequacy in holiness and love, the capriciousness 
of its justice, its repudiation of the conception of father- 
hood, and its denial of the possibility of incarnation and 
of the immanence and indwelling of God.! 

Two testimonies from outside the missionary ranks 
will suffice : 


Johannes Hauri, in his study of Islam, says: 


“ What Mohammed tells of God’s omnipotence, omni- 
science, justice, goodness, and mercy sounds, for the 
most part, very well indeed and might easily awaken 
the idea that there is no real difference between his 
God and the God of Christianity. But Mohammed’s 
monotheism was just as much a departure from true 
monotheism as the polytheistic ideas prevalent in the 
corrupt Oriental Churches. Mohammed’s idea of God 
is out-and-out deistic. God and the world are in exclusive, 
external, and eternal opposition.” * 


And James Freeman Clarke calls it the ‘‘ worst form of 
monotheism,’ and says : 


“Islam saw God, but not man; saw the claims of 
deity, but not the rights of humanity ; saw authority, 
failed to see freedom—therefore hardened into despotism, 
stiffened into formalism, and sank into death. . .. Mo- 
hammed teaches a God above us; Moses teaches a God 


1 W. A. Rice, Crusaders of the Twentieth Century, London, 
I9IO, pp. 231-43; S. M. Zwemer, The Moslem Doctrine of God, 
New York, 1905; W.H. T. Gairdner, The Muslim Idea of God, 
London, 1909; W.R.W. Gardner, The Quranic Doctrine of God, 
Madras, 1916; W. Goldsack, God in Islam, London, 1908. 

* Johannes Hauri, Der Islam, Leiden, 1881, p. 44. 


348 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


above us, and yet with us; Jesus teaches—God above 
us, God with us, and God in us.” 3 


It is the business of Christians, in love and joy, to make 
known the God of Jesus Christ to Moslems. 

Bound up in this fundamental issue between Islam 
and Christianity is their difference with regard to Jesus 
Christ Himself, with regard to sin from which Christ is 
the only Saviour, and with regard to the life of salvation 
in Christ, its ideals and its power. It is true that our 
Lord is assigned a place among the tens of thousands 
of recognized prophets. He is even ranked among the 
first six: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and 
Mohammed. He is recognized to have worked miracles. 
“And we gave unto Jesus, the son of Mary, manifest 
signs and strengthened him by the Holy Spirit.””? But— 


“There is no one cardinal fact concerning the Life, 
Person, and Work of the Lord Jesus Christ which is not 
either denied, perverted, misrepresented, or at least 
ignored in Mohammedan theology.’ 


And the Koran is explicit. The office of Jesus was 
temporary and local. He was only the prophet to the 
children of Israel, and even as such was superseded by 
Mohammed. 

“‘ Jesus is no more than a servant, whom we favoured 


with the gift of prophecy ; and we appointed him for 
an example unto the children of Israel.’’ ‘ 


And again : 
“ Christ the son of Mary is no more than an apostle ; 
other apostles have preceded him ; and his mother was 


1 James Freeman Clarke, Ten Great Religions, Boston, 1895, 
Part II, p. 68, and Part I, p. 483. 

2 Koran: 2: 81. 

3'W. A. Rice, Crusaders of the Twentieth Century, London, 
IQIo, P. 244. * Koran: 43: 59. 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 8349 


a woman of veracity : they both ate food [i.e. were human, 
not divine beings].”’ ! 

In the view of Syed Ameer Ali Jesus was only a 
human teacher deified by his subsequent worshippers.* 
The Christian conception of Him as the Incarnate Son of 
God, Redeemer and Saviour of men, Revealer of the 
Father, Supreme and Living Lord, is a conception so 
totally different from anything in Islam that so long 
as Christians hold it they are bound to seek in love to 
persuade Moslems of its truth and to share with them its 
joy. 

The Moslem and Christian conceptions of sin are 
necessarily as widely variant as their ideas of God. Sin, 
in the Moslem view, is “a conscious act of a responsible 
being against known law.’’* Some hold that there are 
seven great sins; idolatry, murder, false charge of adul- 
tery, wasting the substance of orphans, taking interest 
on money, desertion from jihad, and disobedience to 
parents. Others add wine-drinking, witchcraft, perjury, 
and other sins, Mohammed’s declaration was ; 

“““ The greatest of sins before God is that you call another 
like unto the God who created you, or that you murder 
your child from an idea that it will eat your victuals, 
or that you commit adultery with your neighbour’s wife.’ 
All sins except ‘ great’ ones are easily forgiven, as God 
is merciful and clement.”’? 


The Moslem ideas of sin and righteousness are legalistic. 


‘“ Nothing is right or wrong by nature, but becomes 
such by the fiat of the Almighty. What Allah or his 
Prophet forbids is sin, even should he forbid what 


1 Koran: 5: 79. 

* Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam, London, 1922, p. xxxviii, 

3 Samuel M, Zwemer, Islam: a Challenge to Faith, New York, 
1907, p. 121. 


3850 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


seems right to the conscience. What Allah allows is 
not sin and cannot be sin at the time he allows it, though 
it may have been before or after.” 1 


In Islam— 


“There is an absolute denial of the statement, upon 
which most Christians more or less consciously base their 
belief in the perpetuity and absolute nature of the law 
of human morals, that ‘in the image of God created 
He man.’ Consequently we shall afterwards find that 
in Islam there is no belief in the permanency of the 
moral law, for nothing is thought by the Mussulman 
to be necessarily permanent except things connected 
with the nature of God ; and, as our nature differs entirely 
from that of the Creator, the law given for it cannot be 
necessarily permanent.”’ ? 


Sin is infraction of imposed law, not bias of nature, 
nor flaw of character, nor a fundamental congenital 
taint in humanity. 

And, even as to deliberate infractions of known law, 
some of the Moslem teachers have found a method of 
safe sin, through the attribute of mercy in God. Ina 
paper on the Mohammedan question in Missions, the late 
Henry O. Dwight of Constantinople told this incident : 


‘In travelling in Turkey, I once fell in with a Pasha, 
governor of one of the provinces of Asia Minor. He 
was a most agreeable and even attractive man, and during 
the voyage, which lasted several days, we talked on almost 
every conceivable subject of interest to plain and decent 
men. 

“This sensible and well-meaning man showed me 
the corner-stone of his character one evening at table 
in the cabin. He asked me to take a glass of wine with 


1 Samuel M. Zwemer, Islam : a Challenge to Faith, New York, 


1907, pp. 121-2. 
2 Napier Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town, New York, 


1905, p. 82. 


=. 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 351 


him. I declined. Then the Pasha said: ‘ You may 

think it strange that I, a Mohammedan, should ask 

you, a Christian, to drink with me when wine-drinking 

is forbidden by our religion. I will tell you how I dare 

do this thing.’ He filled his glass, and held it up, looking 

at the beautiful colour of it, and said: ‘ Now, if I say 

that it is right to drink this wine, I deny God’s commands 

to men, and He would punish me in hell for the blasphemy. 

But I take up this glass, admitting that God has com-, 
manded me not to drink it, and that I sin in drinking 

it. Then I drink it off, so casting myself on the mercy | 
of God. For our religion lets me know that God is too, 

merciful to punish me for doing a thing which I wish to! 

do, when I humbly admit that to do it breaks His com-. 
mandments.’ ” 


And Dr. Dwight added : 


“Let it not be supposed that there is no recognition 
of sin in Islam. It is everywhere denounced. But it 
is everywhere regarded as wrong by the decree of God. 
God’s decree can make vice virtue. Sin calls for retribu- 
tion, not reform. Repentance is simply regret for the 
punishment of sin. Mohammed put his seal upon this 
materialistic view of repentance when one of his com- 
panions asked him what should be done with the body 
of a man stoned to death for adultery: ‘ Bury him,’ 
said the Prophet, “as a good Mussulman, for he has 
repented with such a repentance that, if it were divided 
among the whole human race, it would suffice for all.’ 
In fact, it seems to be thoroughly wrought into the 
intellect of the Mohammedan that character is an en- 
dowment of God which cannot be changed. The very 
idea of a change of character is omitted from the Koran.” 


Those who hold to the Christian doctrine of sin and 
wrong cannot refrain from making it known to Moslems 
in order that they may share the salvation of Christ. 

If there were space it could be shown fully that Islam’s 
statutory conception of moral and social principles is 


352 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


fundamentally different from Christ’s living principle 
of spiritual freedom and loyalty, and that the oft-praised 
Moslem idea and practice of brotherhood are partial and 
illusory and radically inferior in theory and in fact to 
the fellowship of Christianity. 

In spite of all that has been said and written of late 
years to defend Islam against the charge that its teach- 
ing and influence degraded woman’s position, fostered 
slavery and war, and retarded social progress, the Mo- 
hammedan people know that historically these charges 
are true, and the present-day efforts of the apologists 
and the earnest struggles of the Moslem peoples are 
evidence of the new life that is moving through the 
whole world of Islam, Turkey has already dealt remorse- 
lessly with the theory of the unity of Church and State 
and the supremacy of the Caliph, The Wahhabis are 
awake again and reasserting ideas, some good, some 
bad, which contradict much of the new apologia. The 
women are discarding the veil, perhaps too hastily, and 
seeking education and freedom. Reformers are speaking 
out, some boldly, some timidly. Kaveh, a monthly 
magazine published by young Persians in Berlin, recently 
printed a series of articles on famous men. In the article 
on Martin Luther in the issue of October 2, 1921, the 
writer praises the deliverance which Luther wrought for 
the human mind from ecclesiastical control and calls 
for similar reforms in Mohammedan laws, as regards: 

1. Considering others than Moslems unclean. | 

2. The imprisonment of women by the purdah system. 

3. The legalizing of polygamy. 

4. The ease of divorce. 

5. Deeming those of religions other than “ ahl-i- 
kitab ’’ 1 infidels and worthy of death. 


1 Ahl-i-kitab (people of a book), e.g., Christians, Jews, Sabians. 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 3538 


6. The restriction of religious teaching to the Arabic 
language. | 


In Azad (Freedom), a paper published in Tabriz, Persia, 
but later suppressed, appeared an article on January 1, 
1922, entitled ‘‘A Medicine for Those Tied to Moslem 
Ecclesiastics,’”’ declaring : 


“In every point all Moslems over the world are low, 
poor, unclean, without civilization, foolish, ignorant, 
and in general they are two hundred years behind 
American and European Christians and even behind the 
Zoroastrians. If it were only in some places that we 
found Islam in this condition we might attribute the 
results to some other reason, but where we find Islam 
everywhere in the same condition we can see no other 
reason but Islam itself.”’ 


One of the most highly educated men in Persia has 
written picturing the low ideals and attainments of life 
in Moslem lands, and declaring : 


“The fountain-head or source of all these evils which 
bid fair to swamp and disrupt the whole country is the 
present religious system of Islam.” 


These testimonies could be multiplied indefinitely, 
and they are reinforced by the judgments of quite im- 
partial observers. ‘“‘ The great intolerance of Moham- 
medanism,’’ says Professor Sir Flinders Petrie, ‘‘ and the 
lower position accorded in law and practice to women 
will always be a bar to its surpassing in civilization the 
races of other creeds.” 

Both in Persia and in Turkey the women are already 
beginning to cast off the old shackles. As recently we 
came out of the mosque of St. Sophia in Constantinople, 
we met a company of seventy or eighty Moslem school- 
girls coming in in a body. They wore their black tchar- 

24 


354 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


scheffs but not over their faces. As they went by with 
their laughing eyes and ruddy cheeks unconcealed, they 
vividly illustrated the change that is taking place. The 
old ideas still hold with such a tenacious grip, however, 
that many Moslem women have no hope. One of the 
ablest apologists for the old order in Tabriz is a Moham- 
medan woman who was educated in Europe and who 
returned with bold ideas which she has come to despair 
of realizing, and who is now preaching the doctrine of 
resignation to the inevitable. The subjugation of woman 
to the ownership of man is not inevitable, however. It 
is inevitable that human society will ultimately rebel 
against any estimate of woman which prevents her 
rendering her full service towards social progress. It 
is a tribute to the durability of the fine elements in 
womanhood that they have not been crushed out under 
the influences of Islam, and no small part of Persia’s 
hope is to be found in the undestroyed capacities of 
Persian women. 

The forces which are struggling throughout the Moslem 
world for freedom and life are the results in large part 
of the contacts of Islam with Christianity. Christians 
owe it both to their Gospel and to the Moslem people 
to share with these sturdy, loyal folk the Light that is 
the True Light and the Power of the Risen Christ. Let 
there be no hesitation. There is in Christianity what 
Islam lacks and what the Moslem people need and have 
a right to have. Mohammed and Mohammedanism have 
never had a more efficient defender in the West than Mr. 
R. Bosworth Smith, the biographer of John Lawrence. 
‘But, knowing Islam, Mr. Smith knows, too, the missionary 
duty which is owed to it by Christians. In an address 
before the Fellows of Zion’s College on February 21, 
1888, he said : 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 355 


“ The resemblances between the two creeds are indeed 
many and striking, as I have implied throughout ; but, 
if I may, once more, quote a few words which I have 
used elsewhere in dealing with this question, the contrasts 
are even more striking than the resemblances. The 
religion of Christ contains whole fields of morality and 
whole realms of thought which are all but outside the 
religion of Mohammed. It opens humility, purity of 
heart, forgiveness of injuries, sacrifice of self, to man’s 
moral nature ; it gives scope for toleration, development, 
boundless progress to his mind; its motive power is 
stronger even as a friend is better than a king, and love 
higher than obedience. Its realized ideals in the various 
paths of human greatness have been more commanding, 
more many-sided, more holy, as Averroes is below Newton, 
Harun below Alfred, and Ali below St. Paul. Finally, 
the ideal life of all is far more elevating, far more majestic, 
far more inspiring, even as the life of the founder of 
Mohammedanism is below the life of the founder of 
Christianity. 

“Tf, then, we believe Christianity to be truer and purer 
in itself than Islam, and than any other religion, we must 
needs wish others to be partakers of it; and the effort 
to propagate it is thrice blessed—it blesses him that offers, 
no less than him who accepts it; nay, it often blesses 
him who accepts it not.”’ ! 


But it is felt by some that the real virtues of the 
Moslem peoples and the solid tenacity of Islam are 
perhaps better for these peoples than any Christian efforts 
to unsettle them, or if not so that at any rate our efforts 
are hopeless and small. In a recent illuminating book 
entitled India, a Bird’s-Eye View, the Earl of Ronaldshay 
speaks of the insistent strength of the call of Islam. 
Surely this strength is there. No one can go among 


1 Frank F, Ellinwood, Oriental Religions and Christianity, 
2nd Edition, New York, 1896, pp. 218, 219. 


356 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


the Moslem peoples without feeling it, and without a 
deep and friendly regard for all the good qualities of 
courage and loyalty and democracy and vigour found 
among them. But also no one can know them without 
realizing how great is their need of Christianity and how 
much Christianity would do to lift them into greater 
things. The Moslem world is backward in education, 
in morality, in hope, in resolution, and in brotherhood. 
Burton’s Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah is only one 
of many inside views of the real weakness and hollowness 
of Islam. Vambéry, in Western Culture in Eastern Lands, 
makes clear enough the need and the doom of the old 
Mohammedanism. The Young Turk has taken the new 
and old road of secularism. The old religion is gone 
for him, and he thinks no new religion is necessary in its 
place, unless it be the religion of nationalism elsewhere 
already antiquated. The simple truth is that the old 
Islam drew its strength from some of the good basic 
elements in the human material it worked on, from some 
partial truths about God, and from the acceptance or 
even the consecration of human forces which were sure 
sooner or later to work out social ruin. There is only 
one remedy. It is not primarily political or educational. 
It is religious. The Moslem peoples need to know and 
love and obey God as revealed in Christ. The issue for 
the Mohammedan world is not Mohammed and Christ. 
It is not Mohammed or Christ. Itis Christ. It is Christ 
or decay and death. The only true Islam is surrender | 
to Christ. Then life and freedom. le 

There is, then, this deep issue between Islam and 
Christianity. But there are many Moslems to-day who 
do not hold to the Moslem ideas which are at variance 


1 ‘‘ Islam, an Arabic word, implying submission to God ”’ 
(Irving, Mahomet, vol. i, p. 72). 


ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY 357 


with the Christian conceptions. Just as Buddhists 
have departed from the teaching of original Buddhism 
in the direction of Christian ideas of God and immortality 
and the soul and its relation to the world, so Moslems 
are prepared to assent to many Christian doctrines. 
Syed Ameer Ali seeks to Christianize all the great teach- 
ings of Islam. As time goes on this attitude of mind 
among Moslems willextend more and more. Our attitude 
toward them must be one of entire good-will and friend- 
ship, of patient appreciation of their problem and of 
humble penitence for our own shortcomings and our 
failure to understand and to present persuasively the 
Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only Saviour 
of Jew or Gentile, of Moslem or Christian. 





THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM 
WORLD 


BY 
JOHN R. MOTT, M.A., LL.D., 


Chairman, International Missionary Council ; Chairman, 
World’s Student Christian Federation 





CHAPTER XXIII 
THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 


THE chain of conferences of workers among Moslems, 
held February, March, and April, 1924, in different parts 
of Northern Africa and Western Asia, and culminating 
in the General Conference in Jerusalem, were most timely. 
Several considerations accentuate their timeliness. The 
recent extensive and profound changes in nearly all parts 
of the Moslem world called for a fresh orientation of the 
work of Christian missions to this important part of the 
missionary task. The remarkable developments within 
Islam rendered a fresh, united study imperatively ne- 
cessary. It was recognized that experiences of recent 
years in other parts of the world-wide missionary move- 
ment should be made available to those engaged in mission 
work among Moslems. The need felt in the home base 
countries of knowing the mind and wish of the workers 
throughout the Mohammedan lands, as well as the 
desire of the missionaries and native leaders in these 
lands for opportunity to speak with united voice to the 
Churches in the West, made these gatherings peculiarly 
opportune. It is difficult to see how they could have 
been held even six months earlier, and the Christian 
movement would have suffered loss had they been deferred 
another year. 

These assemblies of missionaries and leaders of native 


Churches were held at the initiative and under the 
361 


362 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


auspices of the International Missionary Council. Three 
Regional Conferences were followed by a General Con- 
ference in Jerusalem, April 3-7, which was attended 
by delegations from each of the preceding gatherings 
and also by deputations from other areas of the Mo- 
hammedan world, including Arabia, Iraq, Persia, Turki- 
stan, China, British India, and the Dutch East Indies. 
Although the conference was limited to eighty persons, 
this number included outstanding missionary adminis- 
trators, educators, medical and social workers, and 
other recognized leaders of the Christian forces of all 
parts of the Mohammedan world, reaching from North- 
West Africa to the Dutch Indies, and from Central Asia 
to the heart of Africa, as well as workers from the mission 
boards of Europe and America engaged in work for 
Moslems. There were present not only missionaries, 
but also leaders of native Churches, including distinguished 
converts from Mohammedanism. In the annals of Chris- 
tian missions there has never been brought together 
such a representative and influential company of the 
leading minds at work on the problems of Christian 
missions to Moslems. 

The entire membership of the conference was divided 
into ten Committees of Findings on the following sub- 
jects : Accessibility and Occupation, Evangelization, the 
Christian Church, Christian Education, Christian Leader- 
ship, Christian Literature, Women’s Work, Medical and 
Social Needs, Co-operation, and Spiritual Dynamic. 
Each Committee of Findings based its work on surveys 
and papers prepared and circulated in advance, on the 
findings of the various Regional Conferences, on the 
discussions of the General Conference, and upon the 
constructive, corporate thinking of the committee itself. 
The last long day of the conference was devoted to receiv- 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 363 


ing, discussing, amending, and adopting the reports 
of the ten committees. The findings, which have been 
printed and made available for Christian workers among 
Moslems and for missionary societies related to work 
in Moslem lands, have served to co-ordinate the ex- 
perience, thinking, and vision of workers among Moslems 
throughout the world. They constitute an up-to-date, 
prophetic view of work among Moslems. 

The conferences were in no sense legislative bodies. 
Their findings have no more weight or worth than the 
weight of the truth and insight which they embody. 
This, however, should be great indeed as we think of 
the personnel and their exceptional background, rich 
experience, and wide outlook. 

Particular attention is called to the following among 
many points brought out in the discussions and findings, 
as reflecting the common mind of the delegates and as 
being of special concern to all who have at heart the 
extension of the Kingdom of Christ. 

t. The conferences revealed unmistakable evidences of 
the weakening or disintegration of Islam. This is true 
politically. Generally speaking nationalism is taking 
the place of Pan-Islamism. The Turkish Moslem, for 
example, is becoming more Turk than Moslem. The 
abolition of the Caliphate has had a profoundly disturbing 
effect not only in Turkey but also throughout the Mo- 
hammedan world. There are signs on every hand of 
the weakening of the social hold of Islam. This is 
illustrated in the changing position of women, especially 
in the cities: for example, in the postponement of mar- 
riage and the greater freedom of choice on the woman’s 
part, in attendance of women at lectures and entertain- 
ments, in the formation of women’s clubs, in the larger 
liberty in the use of the veil, and in the ever-growing 


364 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


demand for education. The spread of Western in- 
dustrialism and the startling development of the material 
aspects of modern civilization have had a marked dis- 
integrating influence. I asked one of the most eminent 
professors of Al Azhar in Cairo what gave him greatest 
hope for Islam. He replied, “‘ I see no hope ; materialism 
is overwhelming us.” 

Intellectually great changes are observable. On every 
hand one encounters a hunger for knowledge. A new 
mentality is being developed as a result of contact with 
Western science and civilization during the war. Above 
all, one is impressed with the religious unsettling among 
Moslems. Many are sorely perplexed, and do not know 
where they are going. There are multiplying evidences 
of rebellion against tradition and external authority. 
Much of the old bigotry and fanaticism have gone. There 
is a spirit of inquiry abroad, combined with a determina- 
tion to make the most of themselves and of the new day. 
Many workers bear testimony that no longer do they 
encounter the proud, self-satisfied Islam which they 
knew before. 

2. The marvellous accessibility of the Mohammedan 
world to the friendly and constructive ministry of the 
Christian religion was also revealed. The discussions of 
the conferences led to the conclusion that perhaps four- 
fifths of the 235,000,000 who constitute the population of 
the Moslem world are now increasingly accessible to. 
every method of missionary approach. This may be 
said of all British India, the Dutch East Indies, Persia, 
Mesopotamia, China, the Balkans, the whole of North 
Africa, and likewise Central, East, and West Africa, with 
the possible exception of Northern Nigeria. Whole 
regions and entire classes of people who never before 
were reached by the message of Christ have now become 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 365 


physically accessible. There have been rapid and fasci- 
nating developments in ease of communication through- 
out North Africa and the Near East by the construction 
of thousands of miles of railways and modern highways, 
the use of automobile transport, and the air post. Even 
the Sahara has within a few months been crossed re- 
peatedly by automobiles, and a railroad is now under 
construction. The trip from Baghdad to Damascus, 
which formerly required weeks, has, within a year, been 
reduced to nineteen hours. 

Political conditions have become much more favour- 
able in nearly every field unless it be Turkey. Many 
governmental restrictions have been removed. Colonial 
governments once hostile to missions among Moslems 
have become more and more friendly and in some cases 
are even supporting medical and social missionary 
programmes. The new mandates for the Near East, 
and the new Constitution promulgated in Egypt, contain 
definite promises of religious freedom. The war brought 
vast numbers of Moslems into direct contact with Western 
civilization and opened their eyes to a new world. Moslem 
men and women of wealth and social position are visiting 
Christian lands in increasing numbers, and _ literally 
thousands of Moslem students have gone from Asia and 
Africa to European student centres. A multitude of 
labourers from North Africa are streaming into France. 
It was stated at the Jerusalem Conference that more 
Moslems annually visit Paris than Mecca. Contacts 
between Moslems and European Christians are un- 
parallelled in extent and influence. 

Attention should also be called to intellectual accessi- 
bility. In almost every Moslem land education is being 
actively promoted by the Government as well as by 
Christian missions, and the rate of literacy is rapidly 


366 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


increasing. The rising generation is gaining an entirely 
new outlook because of the newspaper, books, the cinema, 
and the theatre, while modern pictorial advertising has 
created a hundred points of contact with Western civiliza- 
tion. A far larger proportion than formerly of pupils 
and students in the mission schools and colleges of the 
Near East and Southern Asia are Moslems. The same 
is true of parts of Africa. A missionary stated at the 
conference in Egypt that formerly in Abyssinia parents 
forbade their children to look in the direction of the 
mission schools ; now they bring them to these schools. 
He added that the parents may not wish to change their 
own religion, but allow their children to do so. This 
suggests the new religious hospitality or accessibility. 
Workers from every field testified to the new willingness 
to hear the gospel message as well as to the larger response. 
Certainly a remarkable change has taken place in the 
attitude of Moslem men and women to the Gospel. They 
are attending meetings more largely ; they gladly accept 
literature ; they are buying and reading the Bible 
more and more. Religious prejudice is being broken 
down in every conceivable way. Professor Levonian 
at the Jerusalem Conference reported that a daily 
paper in Constantinople had for seven months been 
conducting a discussion on the Personality of Christ. 
The problem in the Moslem world to-day, therefore, 
is not that of accessibility, but one of adequate 
multiplication of workers, of a better distribution of 
the forces available, and of augmenting the spiritual 
forces. 

3. Relatively there has been a neglect of Moslems on 
the part of the Protestant Christian forces. We are not 
comparing the Protestant forces on the one hand and 
those of the Roman Catholic or Eastern Church Com- 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 367 


munions on the other, for these other great bodies have 
likewise overlooked work for Moslems. But in proportion 
to their importance and extent Protestant missions to 
Moslems have received vastly less attention, fewer mis- 
sionaries, and less adequate financial backing than those 
to any other great. non-Christian religion. Notwith- 
standing that the Lucknow Conference in rgrr laid the 
facts before Protestant Christendom, the following areas 
or countries in which the population is wholly or pre- 
dominantly Moslem are still practically unoccupied : 
Afghanistan, the provinces of Hejaz, Asir, Nejd, and Ha- 
dhramaut in Arabia, Russian Turkistan, parts of Siberia, 
Bukhara, the eastern part of the Malay peninsula, and 
Socotra; also the Moslem populations of Madagascar, 
Albania, Bulgaria, Jugoslavia, the Crimea, Georgia, and 
Russia in Europe, Tripoli in North Africa, the French 
Sudan, the great Aurés Mountains, Saharan Atlas ranges, 
the central populous mountain region of Morocco, and the 
vast Sahara itself—fields having in them a total popula- 
tion of nearly 40,000,000. The Mohammedans of China, 
numbering over 8,000,000, have scarcely a missionary 
devoting himself entirely to them. The 69,000,000 
Moslems in India also present a field largely unoccupied, 
for very little special work is carried on among them. 
It was pointed out in the Jerusalem Conference that 
in large cities like Bombay, Lucknow, Delhi, and Lahore, 
where formerly there was special effort to win Moslems, 
to-day there are no missionaries wholly devoted to the 
task. Even taking into account all the missionaries who 
are giving portions of time to Moslems, it must be admitted 
that, in proportion to the total number of more than 
5,000 missionaries in India, the aggregate amount of 
time bestowed upon the Moslem task is almost negligible. 
Even in the Near East and the Nile Valley only a very 


368 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


small number are wholly engaged in Christian work 
among Moslems. 

In the Moslem world there are probably 100,000,000 
women and girls still unreached. Miss Trotter, the 
pioneer and spiritual leader of an heroic band of women 
workers in North Africa, said, ‘‘ Each of these Moslem 
women needs a human soul lashed alongside in sympathy 
and prayer. If we could place a hundred thousand who 
had their hearts on fire we could touch the problem.”’ 
Facts like these brought to the attention of Churches 
in the West and students in the universities and semi- 
naries, should correct a widespread misconception that 
the demand for missionaries is less urgent than formerly 
and likely to diminish rapidly in the future. This cer- 
tainly is not the case in by far the larger part of the 
Moslem world. The dearth of Moslem converts is to 
be explained largely on the ground of the extreme shortage 
of workers equipped and set apart especially for this 
undertaking. 

The surveys conducted in certain Moslem fields show 
an excessive concentration of forces in a few main centres, 
resulting in a corresponding neglect of vast areas. More- 
over, the preoccupation of a majority of missionaries 
with appointed tasks in institutions, or in the work of 
general supervision, leaves the number definitely devoting 
their whole time to work for Moslems very small indeed. 
In certain fields, such as Syria and Palestine, the present 
number of workers might prove to be sufficient were they 
more advantageously distributed. It seemed to be the 
opinion of the delegates at the different conferences 
that the mission boards should re-examine the assignment 
of workers in the light of greatly changed conditions. 
Certain missions and Churches need to catch a new 
perspective and to bring about an entire readjustment 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 369 


of emphasis and effort. In some fields, chiefly in the 
Near East, the time has come when the native evangelical 
Churches should be led to constitute themselves the chief 
agency for the evangelization of Moslems by shifting 
the emphasis of their work from missionary activity 
among the Eastern Churches to direct effort for Moslems. 
As a Greek priest said to one of the delegates, ‘‘ We 
should not work in each other’s nets, but launch into 
the deep.”’ 

4. Moslems can be converted, Moslems have. been 
converted, Moslems are being converted. In each area 
one of the most rewarding inquiries was the following, 
““Do you know of definite cases of the conversion of 
Moslems ? If so, give the circumstances and indicate 
the influences which were brought to bear.’’ The dele- 
gates were requested to speak from personal knowledge 
only. The answers constitute a most remarkable record 
of the vital and conquering power of the Christian faith, 
Representatives from all parts of the vast Moslem world 
recounted with particularity and with thrilling effect 
incidents among the most interesting and impressive 
to which the writer has ever listened. Some workers 
confined themselves to describing single cases of con- 
version, others told of whole groups brought to Christ. 
A few were able to bring in reports of scores or of hundreds 
of converts of whom they had first-hand knowledge. 
Missionaries from Abyssinia and from the Dutch Indies 
told of even thousands of baptized Moslems. 

There are also, in the judgment of some missionaries, 
what in the aggregate amounts to a multitude of secret 
inquirers and disciples of Christ. In one conference a 
prominent missionary said, “‘ I believe there are so many 
secret seekers and inquirers at present that if ten people 
in this room would throw their weight toward the winning 

25 


370 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


of these men and women we could soon tell, not of tens, 
but of hundreds turning to the leadership of Christ.” 
The cumulative evidence of these witnesses reminded 
one vividly of the corresponding stage in missionary 
work for Hindus and for the ancient literati of China. 
The impression is too widely prevalent in the Churches 
at the home base that work for Moslems is comparatively 
fruitless and hopeless. The truth of the matter is that 
the time has come to reap. Whereas formerly indirect 
methods of approach were necessary on account of 
government restrictions and Moslem opposition and 
fanaticism, yet in many Moslem lands to-day the way 
is open to widespread and direct evangelization. The 
minds of the Moslems are now in a plastic and impression- 
able state, and must be given the Christian message. 

5. The positive, constructive, irenic, and sympathetic 
approach, method, and spirit now largely prevail in 
Christian work among Moslems, as contrasted with the 
negative, destructive, polemic, and unappreciative. Only 
along the pathway of heroic and sacrificial experience 
on the part of workers who have devoted all their powers 
to the task, and who deserve all praise for their prophetic, 
pioneering ministry, have the deeper lessons been learned 
and has the way been prepared for the larger fruitage of 
to-morrow. The following excerpts reflect the virtually 
unanimous attitude and practice of the representative 
companies of missionaries and native leaders who attended 
the conferences. ‘“‘ Avoid all negative and_ unfruitful 
controversy and rely on the positive preaching of Christ 
crucified and the implications of His Cross, supporting 
one’s appeal to the Moslem heart by the testimony of 
one’s own personal experience.’ ‘“‘ Winning men by 
winsome truth is the true basis of approaching Moslems.” 
*‘ The controversial method is to be avoided and the 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 371 


Christian worker should seek, through the spirit of love, 
to find points of contact in the Moslem’s own faith and 
experience through which he can lead him to Christ.” 
“ Seek the highest and best in the Moslem peoples and lay 
hold of that and build upon it.”” Our message has been 
too much occupied with the weakness of Islam rather 
than with the power of Christianity. The present is 
a time for working quietly. The Moslems are pulling 
down their own house, but they do not want foreigners 
to do it. Let us continue to present the all-sufficiency 
of Christ rather than to make polemical attacks upon 
Islam. When a new and a true conception of Jesus 
Christ is created in the Moslem mind, they will be drawn 
unto Him. 

6. Is there need of a shifting of emphasis in the methods 
employed to reach Moslems ? It is difficult and probably 
impossible to reflect adequately the mind of the different 
conferences, but there are some outstanding impressions 
from the many debates on the subject. 

In every field work among and for the very young 
should be emphasized. While this may seem like a 
truism, there is every reason for giving priority to such 
work in Moslem lands. The blighting influence of Islam 
begins very early. The little children, therefore, should 
be brought to Christ before mentality and character 
have set in Moslem moulds. On this point the experience 
of the missions in Algeria, as set forth in the findings of 
the North Africa Conference, is fresh and convincing. 
Without shadow of doubt the method most likely to 
produce permanent results is that of work among children. 

Educational missionary work in the past has been one 
of the most effective means of ensuring the entrance into 
new Moslem territory, the holding of ground already 
occupied, and the gaining of a hearing for the Christian 


372 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


message. It has also been indispensable as a means for 
raising up and training an adequate leadership for the 
Christian forces. Christian education still constitutes 
one of the best methods of approach to Moslems. The 
demand for the expansion of such work is increasing in 
every field. Even where government systems of educa- 
tion have been established there is still recognized need 
for the character-building processes of Christian educa- 
tion. It should be up-to-date and second to none in 
point of educational efficiency. 

As was strongly emphasized in Jerusalem, there is 
clear and universal testimony that the present situation 
in the Moslem world creates a need for literature as a 
dynamic and penetrating instrument of Christian educa- 
tional evangelism altogether without parallel in range 
and urgency in the literary history of Moslem peoples. 
Literacy is rapidly increasing in most Moslem areas. 
This is developing an ever-expanding demand for litera- 
ture. In these days every printing press in Islamic 
lands should be working up to its capacity. The con- 
ferences brought out even more, however, the importance 
of emphasizing the qualitative aspect of the subject. 
The discussions were based on the splendid piece of 
survey work set forth in the volume, Christian Literature 
in Moslem Lands, which had been placed in the hands 
of every delegate. The General Conference acted una- 
nimously on the recommendation which came up from © 
each of the regional meetings, as well as from North 
America and Great Britain, and set up a Co-ordinating 
Committee on Christian Literature for Moslems, with 
Bishop MacInnes as chairman. The prompt and generous 
backing of this new policy by the mission boards will 
satisfy the demand of discerning workers in the entire 
Moslem field. 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 373 


Medical work is still one of the most valuable and 
efficacious means employed in work among Moslems. It 
not only relieves human suffering, but manifests power- 
fully the spirit of Christ, obtains a hearing for the Christian 
message where other means fail, and is a fruitful agency 
for widespread evangelization. 

Social work is especially needed because Islam con- 
stitutes a close society, social as well as religious, and 
makes provision for the whole life. New converts should 
be received into an equally organized community to 
satisfy that need for brotherhood which the Moslem always 
craves. If we recognize and deal with religious feelings 
and theology only we shall fail, because of the enormous 
weight of social conditions binding the Moslem in every 
detail of practical life. Social activities cannot replace 
but should accompany, aid, illustrate, and complete 
the direct teaching of the Gospel. The Jerusalem 
Conference placed special emphasis also upon social 
reform, including infant welfare, child marriage, child 
labour, general conditions under which industry is carried 
on as to hours of labour, living wage and sanitary 
condition of factories, temperance reform, elimination 
of opium, hashish, and coca-leaf and their derivatives, 
traffic in women and children, and prevention of cruelty 
to animals. 

7. More thorough and more highly specialized training 
for missionaries and native leaders is absolutely essential. 
Christian work among Moslems to-day is such as to 
require workers who not only possess the largest native 
ability but also have acquired the most complete prepara- 
tion. In addition to general culture and professional 
training for special types of activity which are necessary 
for work in any field, there are two lines of preparation 
so vital that they are regarded as indispensable. 


3874 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


a. Training in linguistics which will develop facility 
in mastering the languages, both colloquial and classical, 
used by the people. 

b. Thorough training in Islamics which will impart 
real understanding of the mind and heart of the Moslem 
to-day. The scheme of training should include historical 
Islam and also contemporary mystical and other move- 
ments within Islam. A limited number of carefully 
selected workers should be set apart by the missions to 
specialize on Islam with a view to their directing the 
studies of other workers on this subject. The pro- 
gramme of preparation exhaustively outlined in the 
booklet entitled The Presentation of Christianity to Mos- 
lems, and issued by the Board of Missionary Preparation 
of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America, 
was strongly endorsed by the Jerusalem Conference. 
The Cairo School of Oriental Studies was also commended, 
and it was advised that similar schools be established in 
large areas which cannot be adequately served by this 
institution. 

8. If we depend largely on the Oriental Churches to 
meet the situation as it exists to-day in the Moslem 
world, we shall miss the present opportunity ; never- 
theless, faithful and persevering efforts should be put 
forth to enlist their full co-operation. The question 
recurs from time to time, In view of the fact that the 
Oriental or Eastern Churches are located directly in front 
of large sections of the Moslem world, why not let them 
at least divide the responsibility of evangelizing the 
Moslems? With this in mind the writer had extended 
interviews with the Patriarchs, Metropolitans, Arch- 
bishops, and other ecclesiastical leaders, as well as educa- 
tors, of the various Eastern Churches. This included 
the Greek Church proper, the Armenian Church, the 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 3875 


Syrian Church, the Coptic Church, the Abyssinian Church, 
the autonomous Churches of Roumania, Bulgaria, and 
Jugoslavia, as well as representatives of the Russian 
Church who are at present so widely scattered in lands 
outside Russia. Few, if any, of the outstanding present- 
day leaders in the realm of thought and action of any 
of these great Communions were overlooked. Each one 
was asked this question: “‘ What is the present policy 
or programme of your Communion with reference to the 
evangelization of Moslems ?’’ In every case the answer 
indicated that they had no such plan or programme. 
This, then, led to another question: “‘ Why has your 
Church no such programme?’ Various reasons were 
given, but the serious fact in every instance was that 
they were not ready at the present time to co-operate 
in this vast and urgent undertaking. 

One came to the clear conclusion, therefore, that we 
could not in the near future depend upon these religious 
bodies for any large reinforcements. Nevertheless, a 
careful study of the impact of these Churches on the 
Moslem world will convince one of the great desirability 
and necessity of leading them to undertake a missionary 
programme. It was encouraging to meet here and 
there, especially among the younger clergy and teachers, 
an intelligent and sympathetic response to the appeal 
for co-operation. Moreover, the work of the Student 
Christian Movement in the Near East in recent years has 
revealed the large possibilities in the direction of enlisting 
among the students who are members of the Eastern 
Churches volunteers for aggressive Christian work on 
behalf of Moslems. This is one of the largest unworked 
leads. Moreover, one cannot speak too highly of the 
sympathetic attitude of not a few of the present-day 
leaders of these Churches. The Committee on the Church 


376 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


at the Brumana Conference well expressed the thought 
of the various conferences in the following finding : 


‘“‘ The missionary societies and native Churches should 
use every practicable means, especially through friend- 
ship, to reinspire the Oriental Churches with the apostolic 
and missionary spirit which characterized them in the 
days of the early Church, and to encourage both in- 
dividuals and the Churches as a whole, now that recent 
changes have made it possible, to take their full share 
in the evangelization of the Moslem world.”’ } 


A deeper note was struck at the Jerusalem Conference 
by the Committee on Christian Leadership : 


“As the sufferings of Christ win human hearts, so the 
loving service of those who have suffered most at Moslem 
hands will most powerfully attract those who are now 
opposed to Him. Native leaders, therefore, have a 
peculiar opportunity to give irresistible evidence of the 
power of Christ.’’? 


g. The time has come for bringing about closer co- 
operation among the leaders of the Christian forces 
at work among Moslems. For several years the need 
has been recognized of a closer co-operation among the 
missionaries and other Christian workers in the Moslem 
fields. The Cairo and Lucknow Conferences and their 
related activities revealed the advantages to the mis- 
sionary cause resulting from more intimate fellowship 
and collaboration in planning and in effort. While these 
benefits are now being realized by the workers of India 
and China through their well-planned and efficient 
National Christian Councils, and in more limited areas 
such as Egypt, Syria, and Palestine through inter-mission 


1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 1924, 
New York, 1924, p. 109. * Ibid. p..20% 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 377 


councils, there has been no arrangement which has 
made possible united action on the part of the workers 
throughout Northern Africa and the Near and Middle 
East. The following finding unanimously adopted at 
the Jerusalem Conference is, therefore, highly significant, 
and it is believed that its fulfilment now in progress 
will do much to ensure the carrying out of the many 
other important resolutions of the recent series of con- 
ferences and the realization of the high hopes entertained 
by the delegates and by all others who have at heart 
the highest welfare of the work of Christ among Moslems : 


“The conference has reviewed with interest the 
development of the National Christian Councils in China, 
Japan, and India, enabling the Christian forces in those 
areas not only to increase opportunities for co-operation 
on the field, but to speak with a united voice to the 
home Church. 

“ The Conference is convinced that the time has come 
for the formation of a Council representing the various 
Christian agencies and conferences in North Africa ; 
Egypt, Northern Sudan, and Abyssinia; Syria and 
Palestine ; Turkey and the Balkans; Arabia and Meso- 
potamia; and Persia. We, therefore, recommend that 
a Preliminary Committee be appointed at this time to 
formulate a plan for a Council for Western Asia and 
Northern Africa, to present it to the various agencies 
concerned, and to confer with the International Missionary 
Council concerning affiliation to that body. Pending 
the adoption of the permanent plan of organization the 
Preliminary Committee shall seek to conserve and promote 
the realization of the findings of this and of other com- 
mittees of the Conference.” } 


ro. Our Christian faith is involved and, in fact, is at 
stake in the way in which we at this time deal with the 


1 Conferences of Christian Workers among Moslems, 1924, 
New York, 1924, p. 41. 


878 THE MOSLEM WORLD OF TO-DAY 


need and opportunity presented by the Moslem world. 
To prove the validity of our faith we must bring Christ 
to the entire Moslem world. Archbishop Whately has 
said, ‘‘ If my faith be false, I ought to change it ; whereas 
if it be true, I am bound to propagate it.’”” There is 
no middle ground. We must either modify or abandon 
our faith or be logical, consistent, and apostolic and expand 
our plans and practice so as to give all Moslems oppor- 
tunity to know Christ. The fact that there are still 
difficulties apparently insurmountable and that the 
conquering of them inevitably calls for great sacrifice, 
and, perchance, martyrdom, does not break the force of 
our obligation. 

To preserve our faith, or to maintain its purity, vitality, 
and conquering power, we must give ourselves more 
largely to its propagation by persuasive message, and, 
above all, by contagious character, throughout the vast 
areas of the Moslem world. We need to remind ourselves 
in all solemnity of those early Christian Churches which 
existed in thousands across the breadth of North Africa, 
not to mention parts of Western Asia, and which have 
disappeared leaving no living trace, and to ask ourselves 
what was the reason that for over a thousand years 
Islam reigned supreme where once these Churches 
witnessed for Christ. Moreover, the state of certain 
of the Oriental Churches to-day, and even of sections 


of the Roman Catholic Church, and of the Protestant. 


Communion here and there which have neglected their 
missionary responsibility, and thus lost their world- 
conquering power, are present-day evidences and warnings 
of the danger. 

The essential victory or ultimate triumph of our 
Christian faith is involved as well as its validity and 
vitality. A Gospel which cannot, after being adequately 


a 


THE OUTLOOK IN THE MOSLEM WORLD 379 


brought to bear upon Moslems, win their minds and 
hearts and command the allegiance of their wills, must 
fail to satisfy the deepest longings and the highest ex- 
pectations of the followers of other religions and of those 
without any religious faith. Ultimately, therefore, the 
triumph of the Christian cause in other foreign fields and 
at the home base is involved in what takes place in the 
heart of the Mohammedan world. The most searching 
experience and possibly the most creative hour in each 
of the conferences was the consideration of the topic, 
“What has Christ to bring to Moslems which they 
cannot under any circumstances obtain from their own 
religion or from any other source?’ The corporate 
thinking and intercession of those memorable hours 
confirmed the faith of everyone as to the absolute 
uniqueness, supremacy, and sufficiency of Jesus Christ 
the Living Lord. 





APPENDIX 
LIST OF MOSLEM NEWSPAPERS IN INDIA 


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LIST OF MOSLEM NEWSPAPERS IN INDIA}? 


Name of Paper. 
Azad Hind 
Dar-ul-Islam 
Gnana Survyan 


Hakeem and Vythian 


Hythayath 

Islam Dootan 
Kerala Chandrika 
Malabar-Islam 
Mukhbir-1-Deccan 
Muneerul Islam 
Muslim Akhiam 
Muslim Sahakan 
Nilgir Times 
Qasim-ul-A khbar 


Quam Report 
Rahban-Deccan 
Risala-t-al-Maalij 
Risala-t-Atalig 


Risala-1-M ahbub-un- 


Nazar 


Risala-i-Now-Nthal 


Risala-Wais 
Risala-un-Nisa 


1 This was secured from the Indian Government through the 
Rev. William Paton, Secretary of the National Christian Council. 


I. MADRAS PRESIDENCY 


Language. 

Urdu 
Tamil 
Tamil 
English 
Malayalam 
Malayalam 
Anglo-Malayalam 
Anglo-Malayalam 
Urdu 
Malayalam 
Malayalam 
Malayalam 
English 
Urdu, Tamil, and 

English 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 


Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 


383 


Where published. 
Triplicane 
Madras 
Vijiapuram 
Madras 
Calicut 
Kayamkulam 
Travancore 
Cochin State 
Madras 
Kayamkulam 
Travancore 
Calicut 
Ootacamund 
Madras 


Madras 
Hyderabad 
Afzalgang 
Hyderabad 


Hyderabad 
Hyderabad 
Hyderabad 
Hyderabad 


384 


Name of Paper. 
Sahifa 
Saiful Islam 
Shamsul Islam 
Sugathara Bodhint 


APPENDIX 


Language. 
Urdu 
Tamil 
Malayalam 
Tamil 


2. BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 


A ftab-e-Islam 
Akhbar 
Akhbar-e-Islam 
Al-Az1z 
Al-Hagqiqat 
Al-Haq 
Al-Islam and Momin 
Mitra 
Al-Kamal 
Al-Khashif 
Al-Wahid 
Bag-e-Momin 
Baha News 
Bahare Majlis 
Fayze Am 
Gulzart Sukhan 


Insaf 

Irfan 
Ishaat-e-Islam 
Ismaili 
Kathiawad 
Khilafat 

Khilafat Bulletin 
Manhar 

Memon Mitra 
Memon Samachar 
Merchants Advertiser 
Mohib 

Muslim Herald 


Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Anglo-Sindhi 


Gujarati 

Gujarati 
Arabic-Sindhi 
Arabic-Sindhi 
Gujarati and Urdu 
English and Persian 
Gujarati 

Gujarati 

Urdu 


Gujarati 
Urdu 
Gujarati 
Anglo-Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
English 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Gujarati 
Urdu 


Where published. 
Hyderabad 
Madras 
Karunagapalli 
Madras 


Rajkot Para 
Bombay 
Bombay 
Jodiya 
Larkana 
Sukkur 


Bombay 
Bombay 
Larkana 
Karachi 
Amreli 
Karachi 
Bombay 
Ahmedabad . 
Poona Canton- 
ment 
Bombay 
Bombay 
Bombay 
Bombay 
Upleta 
Bombay 
Bombay 
Bombay 
Bombay 
Karachi 
Bombay 
Limbdi 
Bombay 


APPENDIX 385 


Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
Political Bhomiyo Anglo-Gujarati Ahmedabad 
Rahe Najat Gujarati Bhavanagar 
Roznama-e-Khilafat Urdu Bombay 
Sat Panth Prakash Gujarati Ahmedabad 
Sind Zamindar Anglo-Sindhi Sukkur 
Sultan-ul-A khbar Urdu Bombay 
Talim Sindhi Hyderabad 
Tohid Sindhi-Arabic Karachi 
Vafadar English, Gujarati, § Navsari 

and Urdu (Baroda) 

3. THE UNITED PROVINCES 

Agra Akhbar Urdu Agra 
Al Bashir Urdu Etawah 
Al Bureed Urdu Cawnpore 
Aligarh Gazette Urdu Aligarh 
Al Imdad Urdu Muzaffarnagar 
Al Khalil Urdu Bijnor 
Allahabad Advertiser English Allahabad 
An Naztr Urdu Lucknow 
Dabdaba-1-Sikandart Urdu Rampur State 
Darbar Urdu Agra 
Dilchasp Akhbar Urdu Fatehpur 
Hagqiqat Urdu Lucknow 
Hamdam Urdu Lucknow 
Hamdard Urdu Cawnpore 
Indian World English Cawnpore 
Inqilab Urdu Lucknow 
Iqdam Urdu Moradabad 
Ittthad Urdu Amroha 
Jadu Urdu Jaunpur 
Mansur Urdu Bijnor 
Mashahir Urdu Budaun 
Mashniq Urdu Gorakhpur 
Mecca Medina Urdu Moradabad 
Medina Urdu Bijnor 


26 


386 APPENDIX 


Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
Millat Urdu Meerut 
Maanf Urdu Azamgarh 
Mukhbir-1-Alam Urdu Moradabad 
Natyar-1-Azam Urdu Moradabad 
Najat Urdu Bijnor 
Nagib Urdu Budaun 
Nawad Urdu Bulandshahr 
Nizam Alam Urdu | Cawnpore 
Oudh Punch Urdu Lucknow 
Paigam Urdu Fyzabad 
Pardah Mashin Urdu Agra 
Rahouma Urdu Moradabad 
Rohilkhand Gazette Urdu Bareilly 
Rozana Akhbar Urdu Bareilly 
Sayyarah Urdu Lucknow 
Shia College News Urdu Lucknow 
Surmani-t-Rozgar Urdu Agra 
Tabligh Urdu Agra 
Zarif Urdu Saharanpur 
Zul Qarnain Urdu Budaun 


4. THE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR 


Adib Urdu Nagpur 

Al Burhan Urdu Burhanpur 

Gulzar-1-Hakimt Gujarati Khamagaon 

Sasimi-1-Saha Urdu and Gujarati Narsinghpur 

Taj Urdu Jubbulpore 
5. BURMA 

Arakan News English Akyab 


6. BIHAR AND ORISSA 


Islah Urdu Raghunathpur 


Name of Paper. 
Ahale Hadis 
Atnul Islam 
Al Jamaya 
Al Kamal 
Al Rafique 
Bahadur 
Bangrya Moslem 

Sahitya Patrika 
Bengal Presidency 
Gazette 
Dhumketu 
Hanter Phatker' 
Inqilab Zamana 
Islam Darshan 
Jadu 
Mohammadi 
Mussalman 
Noakhali Hitaishi 
Noakhaht Sammilant 
Peace 
Ratnakar 
Rayat Bandhu 
Sonar Bharat 
Sultan 


Ahl-1-Hadis 
Akhtar 
Al-Azz 
Al-Burhan 
Al-Bushra 
Al-Falah 
Al-Faqth 
Al-Fazl 


APPENDIX 


47. BENGAL 
Language. 

Bengali 
Bengali 
Arabic 
Urdu 

Urdu 
Bengali 


Bengali 


English-Bengali 
Bengali 

Urdu 

Urdu 

Bengali 

Urdu 

Bengali 

English 

Bengali 

Bengali 

English 

Bengali 

Bengali 
Bengali-English 
Bengali 


8. THE PUNJAB 

Urdu 

Urdu 

Urdu 

Urdu 

English 

Urdu 

Urdu 

Urdu 


1 Or Hunter Phatkar. 


387 


Where published. 
Calcutta 
Dacca 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 


Calcutta 


Nator 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 
Dacca 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 
Noakhali Town . 
Noakhali Town 
Dacca 

Asansol Town 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 
Calcutta 


Amritsar 
Lahore 
Batala 
Lahore 
Qadian 
Jullundur 
Amritsar 
Qadian 


888 APPENDIX 


Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
Al-Hakam Urdu Oadian 
Al-Hakim Urdu Lahore 
Al-Islam Urdu Lahore 
Al-Kamal Urdu Lahore 
Al-Mailij Urdu Amritsar 
Al-Munir Urdu Lahore 
Al-Quaaish Urdu Amritsar 
Angora Urdu Amritsar 
Anwar-us-Sufia Urdu Lahore 
Doctor Urdu Lahore 
Dur-i-Najaf Urdu Sialkot 
Farug Urdu Qadian 
Hamdard Urdu Lahore 
Hazar Dastan Urdu Lahore 
Hubb-i-Watan Urdu Miani 
Humayun Urdu Lahore 
Hurriyyat Urdu Lahore 
Indian Architect Urdu Lahore 
Indian Cases and 

Statutes English Lahore 
Intikhad-1-Lajawab Urdu Lahore 
Inqilab Urdu Lahore 
Ishatat-1-Islam Urdu Lahore 
Isha’ atul-Quran Urdu Lahore 
Islah Urdu Ludhiana 
Islamic World English Lahore 
Ismaili Sadaqat Urdu Rawalpindi 
Istiglal Urdu Panipat 
Ittthad-ul-Islam Urdu Amritsar 
Kakkezai National 

Magazine Urdu Lahore 
Kashmiri Urdu Lahore 
Manzar Urdu Lahore 
Mashir-ul-Attibba Urdu Lahore 
Mister Gazette Urdu Lahore 


Muhabbat Urdu Lahore 


Name of Paper. 
Mussalman 
Muslim Outlook 
Muslim Rajput 
Muzarah 
Nagshband 
Nur 
Nusrat 
Patsa Akhbar 
Payam-1-M uhabbat 
Phul 
Political Rahnuma 
Political Rahnuma 
Punjaht Khiyalat 
Rafig-t-Sadigq 
Rafiq-ul-Talim 
Rahnuma-t-Sehat 
Ratlway Union 
Riaz-1-Hind 


Risala-1-Anjuman-t- 


Himayat-1-Islam 
Rissala Suilej 
Rissala Shetkh 

Qanungoyan 
Sanaat 
Shahab-1-Urdu 
Silk-1-Marwanid 
Styasat 
Sufi 
Tabib 
Tabligh 
Tabsirat-ul-Atibba 
Tafrth 
Tadib-un-Nisa 
Tahnk 
Tahzib-ul-Niswan 
Tauhid 


APPENDIX 


Language. 


Urdu 
English 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 


Urdu 
Urdu 


Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 
Urdu 


Where published. 


Sodhra 
Lahore 
Amritsar 
Jullundur 
Sialkot 
Oadian 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Amritsar 
Batala 
Batala 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Amritsar 


Lahore 
Ludhiana 


Lyallpur 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Batala 
Lahore 


Pindi-Bahauddin 


Lahore 
Lahore 
Shahdara 
Lahore 
Oadian 
Lahore 
Lahore 
Amritsar 


890 APPENDIX 


Name of Paper. Language. Where published. 
Ustant Urdu Batala 
Watan Urdu Lahore 
Zamindar Urdu Lahore 
Zamzama Urdu Lahore 
Zaraat Urdu Lahore 
Liafat. Panch. Urdu Lahore 


Zulrfigar Urdu 7 Lahore 


INDEX 


Abahi, Abdallah, Al-Madhhab ar- 
Ruhani referred to, 310 

Abbasid, Caliphs, science encouraged 
by, 171; dynasty at no time in 
control of entire Moslem com- 
munity, 36 

Abbasids, rise of the, 87 

Abdin, dispensary opened at, 217 

‘Abdu, Mohammed, founder of Al 
Manar, 133; of Egypt, famous 
Mufti, 43; Tafsir referred to, 
317-18 

Abrogation of the Christian Scrip- 
tures, the theory of, 313 

Abyssinia, Coptic monks of Egypt 
revived Christianity in, 267-8; 
polygamy still the rule in, 226-7 

Abyssinian Church, The, 263 

Accessibility, increased by change in 
Moslem Near East, 25 ; of Moslem 
lands, 4; of the Moslem world to 
Christian influences, 364-6 

Adamaoua, the Moslems of, 124 

Adana, Turkish papers published in, 


129 
Adrianople, Turkish papers published 


in, 129 

Afghanistan, Bolshevism in, 72; the 
extent of present-day Moslem 
journalism in India, Ceylon, and, 
138-40; the first Moslem journal 
published in, 140; Indian Moslems 
mention among possibilities for 
the Caliphate the Amir of, Ior; 
modern light shut out from, 25; 
travelling schools for nomadic 
tribes instituted by the Amir of, 8 

Africa, extent of present-day Moslem 
journalism in, 134-5; plan for a 
Council of Western Asia and North- 
ern, 377 

Agayefi, Ahmad Bey, a pioneer of the 
Moslem Press in Russia, 144 

Agha Khan appealed to Turkish 
Government, 51, 96 

Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam, of Qadian, 
founder of Ahmadiya Movement, 
308; quoted regarding divine 
Sonship and the Trinity, 314 


391 


Ahmad, Sir Syed, The Mohammedan 
Commentary on the Holy Bible 
referred to, 342 

Ahmadiya, Commentary on the Koran, 
313; community in Chicago, 315; 
Press uses arguments of liberal 
Christianity, 150; version of the 
Koran, see Holy Qur'an. 

Ahmadiya Movement, follows the 
Christian model, 309-10; has 
absorbed some of the _ ethical 
principles of Christianity, 16; The 
Islamic Review, published at Wok- 
ing, England, by the, 145; The 
Moslem Sunrise represents the, 
146; result of the attempt to meet 
new conditions, 14; The Review of 
Religions represents the original, 
138-9; teaches Messiahship of 
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad,of Qadian,308 

Ahmadiyas of India, 139 

Ahong, the Chinese, 124 

‘Ain al Hayatt,’’ a dispensary at 
Abdin, 217 

‘Aisha, 306 

al-Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, exiled for 
his views on the emancipation of 
women, 216 

al-Bedawi, Ahmad, founder of the 
dervish order in Egypt, 295 

al-Beruni quoted, 50 

al-Ghazali, from Mohammed to, 26; 
great mystics, like, often philoso- 
phers as well, 292; Ihyau Ulim 
ad-Din referred to, 293 

al-Jilani, Abd al-Oadir, dervish orders 
started under the influence of, 293 ; 
founder of the dervish orders, 295 ; 
still a living personality to every 
Qadiriya dervish, 297; a teacher 
at Baghdad, 295 

al-Jili on the Koran, 316-17 

al-Khattab, Omar b., agreement of 
subject Christians with, 270-1 

al-Khidr, the ever-living saint, 299 

al-Makki, Abu Talib, Qdadiw’l-Qulub 
referred to, 293 

al-Qadir, Abd, 296 ; 
Abd al-Qadir. 


see also al-Jilani, 


392 


al-Qushayri, Abu’l-Oasim, Risdalatu’l- 
Qushayriyya referred to, 293 

al-Rashid, Harun, patron of litera- 
ture, 170; typical Caliph, 43 

Alam, Muhammad Amir, Jslam and 
Christianity quoted, 313; referred 


to, 315 

Albania, break with Islam shown by 
recent legislation in, 9, 17 

Aleppo, Turkish and Arabic papers 
published in, 129 

Algeria, excellently organized schools 
being’ ‘opened in, 233; has a 
vigorous daily Press at Algiers, 
Oran, and Tlemsen, 135; literacy 
statistics of women in, 234; 
migration to France of 100,000 
Kabyles from, 75 

Algiers, a vigorous daily Press at, 135 

Ali, reign of, 35 

Ali, Maulana Muhammad, founder of 
the Jamia, 106; quoted, 104 

Ali, Maulvi Muhammad, The Holy 
Qur'an referred to, 313, and quoted, 
318-20 

Ali, Moulavi Cherdgh, cited, 102; 
Critical Exposition of the Popular 
““ Jthad”’ quoted, 308, 309; Pro- 
posed Political, Legal, and Social 
Reforms under Moslem Rule quoted, 


30 

Ali, Muhammad, A Scheme of Studies 
for National Muslim Educational 
Institutions in India cited, 106 

Ali, Syed Ameer, appealed to Turkish 
Government, 51, 96; cited, 102; 
Legal Position of Women in Islam 


referred to, 321; pays scant 
respect to tradition, 308; The 
Spirit of Islam quoted, 256, 


referred to, 346; view of Jesus 
Christ held by, 349 

Aligarh, Moslem college at, men- 
tioned, 8; National Moslem Uni- 
versity of, 106 

Aligarh Muslim University, the 
Begum of Bhopal chancellor of, 
254; an instance of disregard of 
purdah at, 257; mentioned, 252; 
Phul edited by the wife of the 
treasurer of, 253; the Principal of, 
quoted, 343; rationalist reformers 
of the, attack validity of tradition, 
308 

All-India Educational Conference, 93 

All-India Moslem Ladies’ Conference 
of 1924, 256 

All-India Moslem League, 93; views 
placed before the Viceroy in 1906 
by the deputation of the, 12 


INDEX 


Am, the teaching and _ initiating 
sheikhs, 298 

Amanullah, Amir of Afghanistan, 
140 

America, attitude of Indian Moslem 
women toward the feminist move- 
ments of Europe and, 107; atti- 
tude toward Moslems of people of, 
112-13; colleges and universities 
established from Britain or, 73; 
commercial relations in Philippines 
of the. United States of, 114; 
enjoys unmerited reputation for 
international unselfishness, 326-7; 
extent of present-day Moslem 
journalism in Europe, Australia, 
and, 145-7; Moslem and Arabic 
newspapers and magazines pub- 
lished in the United States of, 146; 
Moslem youth sent to universities 
of Europe and, 179 

American education manifests poli- 
tical bias hostile to East, 188 

American Girls’ College in Cairo, 213 

American University, Beirit, 74 

American University, Cairo, 74 

Amet, Jaafer Seyid, editor of Tar- 
jaman, 145 

Amin, Kasim, The Emancipation of 
Women, also The New Woman, 
referred to, 216 

Amman, 157, 158, 159, 160, 165 

Amman, Begum Bibi, the late, 254 

Ancient Oriental Churches, and of 
Eastern Christians, education ne- 
cessary to change to action the 
mind of the, 286-7; and Western 
Christianity, improvement in re- 
lations between the, 274-5 ; causes 
of the modern decline of the, 268- 
72; converts from Islam have 
not been assimilated in the, 283; 
definition of the term, 263; the 
duty of Western Christianity 
toward the, 274, 275-6; effects of 
centuries of oppression upon the, 
272-3; long-standing non-evan- 
gelistic and non-proselytizing tra- 
dition of the, 281; look ‘with 
abhorrence upon conversion of 
Moslems, 273-4; the missionary 
history of the, 266-8 ; the mission- 
ary ideal of the, 266; oppression 
of the, under Moslem rule, 269-72, 
282; potential allies in the cause 
of evangelization of Islam, 264; 
should receive from the Christian 
West the contribution of its fresher 
idealism, 265 

Andrae, Tor, Die Person Muhammeds 


INDEX 


in Lehre und Glauben seiner 
Gemeinde referred to, 320 

Anglo-Oriental College, India, 106 

Angora, bad feeling between Con- 
stantinople and, 51; new capital 
of Turkey, 51; the Press at, 130; 
seat of government in, 51-2; 
Teachers’ Association’s meeting 
held in, in 1924, 212; Turkish 
papers published in, 129; Yent- 
Hayat, a communist journal pub- 
lished at, 153 

Angora Government, the Turkish 
Press at Constantinople under the 
new, 130 

Animism in Islam, 243 

Animistic idolatry being restored to 
Islam, 299 

Annales, Abu Tabari, quoted, 269-70 

Annalt dell’ Islam, Leone Caetani, 
cited, 270 

Annals of the Early Caliphate quoted, 
169; referred to, 3 

‘Antar, songs of, 158 

Anti-Christian material produced in 
the West used to attack the Chris- 
tian missionaries in the East, 310 

Antioch, a base of ancient Oriental 
Christendom, 266 

Apollos, the Alexandrian Jew, 28 

Apologetic, adaptation of new argu- 
ments sought by the present-day 
Moslem, 306 ; call to Christians to 
present a winning and convincing, 
ix; defence of Islam as a factor in, 
316-21; increasing acceptance of 
Christian conceptions in Moslem, 
356-7; literature of Islam of the 
orthodox type largely influenced 
by the work of Christian missions, 
305-6; literature of the old 
orthodoxy, the present-day, 305-6 ; 
a new type of Moslem, 305; re- 
statement of Moslem, viii; the 
unorthodox and reforming Moslem, 
307-21 ; writers, differences among 
missionaries regarding Biblical cri- 
ticism utilized by Moslem, 312-13 

Apologetics, Moslem, methods of, 148 

Apology for Muhammad and _ the 
Qur'an referred to, 311 

Approach, chief use of mission schools 
as an, 177; contention for Moslem 
liberty of thought provides a 
common ground for a Christian, 
15; for Christianity through the 
Arabic language, 161-2; to Chris- 
tian work among Moslems, the 
positive, constructive, irenic, and 
sympathetic, 370; to Islam ren- 


398 


dered more difficult by distrust of 
Moslems and lack of confidence on 
part of Christians, 29; Raymond 
Lull should furnish the model of, 


343 

Appropriation of £10,000 (Egyptian) 
voted by Parliament to the Com- 
mittee of Fine Arts, 203 

Arab, and medieval Catholic mysti- 
cism, similarities between, 293; 
women and the Kabyle compared, 
240; women, need of shelter- 
houses and rescue-homes for the 
Kabyle and, 239; women, poten- 
tialities in the character of the, 
243; women, religious life of the, 
241 

Arabia, depends almost entirely on 
Cairo for news, 134; extent of 
present-day Moslem journalism in 
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and, 130-4; 
frequent marriage and divorce pre- 
valent in, 226; hopelessly divided, 
II; unprecedented awakening of 
the youth in, 13; the Wahhabi 
movement an attempt to meet new 
conditions in, 14 

Arabian Medicine quoted, 171-2 

Arabic, and Turkish, a table of 
periodicals published in, 129; as 
a sacred language, 5; culture, 
renaissance of, vili; language, an 
aid to Moslem unity, 85 ; language, 
approach for Christianity offered 
through, 161-2; language freed 
by the newspaper from much of 
its bombast, 153; mewspaper, 
circulation of an, 133; newspaper 
in Cairo, the first, 126; number of 
Indian periodicals in, 138 ; number 
of Moslems who speak, 130; 
Persian, and ‘Turki languages 
represented in the Press of Bu- 
khara, 144; plays being produced 
in, 202; Press found in nearly 
every great centre of the Moslem 
world, 131; Press in Egypt, 
growth of the, 132; renaissance, 
existence of an, 183; renaissance, 
tendency of Westerner to under- 
estimate the importance of, 184; 
still persists in India as_ the 
language of the Moslem religion, 
105; style of architecture effec- 
tively employed in Morocco, 205 ; 
style of architecture promoted in 
Cairo by Kitchener, 204; sup- 
planting of, by Turkish condemned 
by Indian Moslems, 105 ; taught in 
the National Islamic schools of 


394 


India, 106; works of Aristotle 
translated into, 170 

Arabs, and Berbers in North-West 
Africa, 236; and Kabyles, effect 
of residence in France upon young, 
2 — 

Architecture, Arabic style of, recom- 
mended, 205 

Argentina, Mohammedan papers in, 


146 

Aristotle, Arabs transmitters of the 
learning of, 183; works of, 
translated into Arabic, 170 

Armenia, Gospel taken to, by the 
Eastern Christians of Edessa, 267 

Armenian Church, the, 263 

Arnold, Sir T. W., The Caliphate 
quoted, 50, 54; The Preaching of 
Islam referred to, 269 

Art, gallery needed in Egypt, 206; 
history of, to be introduced into 
the Egyptian schools, 203; in 
Egypt, women taking an important 
part in the revival of, 208; Moslem, 
imitative rather than creative, 
199; the young Egyptian does not 
understand the ennobling  in- 
fluences of creative, 201 

Arts, exhibitions in Cairo, 202; 
society, formation in Cairo of an, 
202 

Ashqabad, Moslem newspapers at, 


144 
ash-Shadhili, Abu’l Hasan, life of, 


293-5 

Asia and North Africa, plan of a 
council for, 377 

Asiatic Church of the Nestorians 
before the Tamerlane invasion, the 
enormous, 267 

Assembly, the Mohammedan eccle- 
siastical, at Ufa, 144 

Association of Egyptian Women for 
Social and Intellectual Improve- 
ment, The, 217 

Asyit College, 74 

at-Tannir, Salim, 310 

Atbara, education at, 215 

Attack on Christianity, 311 

Attacks on Christianity in modern 
Islamic literature, 68 

Attitude, Christendom challenged to 
make a revaluation of its, 76; 
Christian, toward Islam, viii—xi; 
held by Christians of the West 
toward the ancient Oriental 
Churches, 264; missionary, of the 
Churches of Christendom, 119; 
Moslem, toward Christianity, ix; 
of Americans toward Moslems, 


INDEX 


112-13; of diplomatic and com- 
mercial Christendom toward Islam, 
114-15 ; of Indian Moslem women 
toward feminist movements of 
Europe and America, 107; of 
Moslem India toward emancipa- 
tion of women, 107; of sympathy 
must be shown to converts from 
Islam, 286; of repugnance held 
by ancient Oriental Churches to- 
ward conversion of Moslems, 273- 
4; toward Christianity friendly, 
Islam’s early, 342-3; toward 
Christianity produced by Moslem 
literature, 161 ; toward Islam that 
Christians should hold, 357 ; which 
Western Christianity should adopt 
toward the ancient Oriental 
Churches, 273-5 

Aurés Mountains inhabited by a 
detachment of Kabyles, 236 

Australia, the extent of present-day 
Moslem journalism in America, 
Europe, and, 145-7 

Avicenna, see Sina, Ibn. 

Azhar, Al, 61, 62, 65; sheiks of, 41 

Aziz, Abdul, in the domain of, 329 


Bab declared to have brought a 
revelation superseding that of 
orthodox Islam, the, 307 

Badr, Muhammad, The Truth about 
Islam quoted, 308, 317 

Baghdad, al-Jilani a teacher at, 295; 
the capital of the Abbasid dynasty, 
36, 37; the former intellectual 
centre of Islam, 170; has five 
journals, 134; hospitals in, 171; 
the Naqib of, 214 ; newspapers and 
periodicals of, 71; students of 
medicine in, 171; Turkish and 
Arabic papers published in, 129 

Bahai propaganda shot through and 
through with Christian ideas, 310 

Bahais, and Ahmadiyas, 305; have 
taken over the conception of the 
Incarnation, 314; teach that Bab 
came with a revelation that super- 
seded that of orthodox Islam, 307 

Baha’ullah, the, 307, 314 

Bahrein, example of the young Arab 
of, 336; hospital, 326, 328 

Bakhchisarai, a centre of Moslem 
journalism, 144; Tarjaman pub- 
lished at, 144 

Baku, a centre of Moslem journalism, 
144; the chief centre of the Moslem 
Press in the Caucasus, 145; Yent- 
Dunya, a Turkish Socialist paper 
published at, 153 


INDEX 


Balkan War, Turkey’s defeat in the, 
a moral victory for the liberty of 
the Press, 128 

Bandung, Moslem periodicals pub- 
lished at, 141 

Barbary States more tardy in journal- 
ism than Turkey, 134 

Basra, has two journals, 134; Turk- 

_ ish and Arabic papers published in, 
129 

Batavia, a centre of Moslem publica- 
tions, 141 

Bedouin women, life of, 232 

Begum of Bhopal, the, Chancellor of 
Aligarh University, 254; conferred 
a life-pension on the deposed 
Caliph, 99 

Beirit, Syria, Al Bashir appeared at, 
in 1869, 126; girls being sent for 
their education from Damascus to, 
214; poems of ‘Antar printed in, 
158; Turkish and Arabic papers 
published in, 126, 129 

Bengal, Al Islam the leading Moslem 
vernacular periodical in, 138; list 
of Moslem newspapers in, 387; 
Moslem population of, 93; a new 
magazine for women started in, 
253; number of Moslem periodi- 
cals in, 138 

Bengali, number of Moslem periodi- 
cals in, 138 

Beni M’zab, no woman allowed to 
stir from the tribal cities among 
the, 236 

Berbers and Arabs in North-West 
Africa, 236 

. Berlin, Moslem periodicals published 
in, 136-7, 145, 352 

Bhopal, the Begum of; see Begum 
of Bhopal, the. 

Biblical criticism, differences among 
missionaries regarding, utilized by 
Moslem apologetic writers, 312-13 

Bihar and Orissa, list of Moslem news- 
papers in, 386; number of Moslem 
periodicals in, 138 

Bir Alali, the African Zawiya of, in 
Kanem, 124 

Biskra, Kabyles inhabit the Aurés 
Mountains near, 236 

Board of Missionary Preparation of 
the Foreign Missions Conference of 
North America, The Presentation 
of Christianity to Moslems referred 
to, 374 ea ae 

Boedi-Oetomo, a Moslem society in 
the Dutch East Indies, 141 

Bolshevik propaganda active in the 
Moslem Press of Persia, 152-3 


395 


Bolshevism, as a force in the Islamic 
world, 71-3; in the Press of India 
and Egypt, 153 

‘‘ Bolshevisme et lIslam, Le,” in 
Revue du Monde Musulman, 1922, 
cited, 152, 153 

Bombay, Presidency, list of Moslem 
newspapers in, 384-5 ; Presidency, 
number of Moslem periodicals in, 
138 

Bombay Presidency Moslem Ladies’ 
Conference held at Poona, 1924, 
107, 252-3, 257 

Books, by Christians about Islam, 
interest of educated Moslems in, 
112; for women from a Moslem 
point of view, a missionary of 
Delhi urges the need of, 254; 
need for story-, 162-4; slavery to 
text-, 163; sold to Moslems since 
1914, 68 

Boy Scout Movement remarkably 
successful in Iraq, 218 

Brazil, Mohammedan papers pub- 
lished in, 146 

British, mandate in Iraq, 186; 
Moslems and Hindus in India make 
common cause against the, 13; 
protectorate in Palestine, 185 

British Guiana, Mohammedan papers 
in, 146 

Brotherhood, a fundamental idea in 
Islam, 284; the original Christian 
ideal of, must be revived, 285 

Browne, Edward Granville, Arabtan 
Medicine quoted, 171-2; A His- 
tory of Persian Literature im 
Modern Times, The Persian Re- 
volution of sgo5-rg09, and The 
Press and Poetry of Modern Persia 
referred to, 136 

Brumana Conference, report of the 
Committee on the Church, of the, 
quoted, 376 

Bukhara, the Moslem Press active 
at, 144 

Bukhsh, S. Khuda, cited, 7; quoted, 14 

Bulgaria, chief centres of Moslem 
literary activity in, 145; Western 
education produced modern, 188 

Bureau d’Information  Islamique, 
Echos de lIslam, Paris, published 
by the, 145 

Burgas, a centre of Moslem literary 
activity in Bulgaria, 145 

Burma, list of Moslem newspapers in, 
386; Moslem periodicals in, 138 

Burton, Sir Richard, The Pilgrimage 
to Al-Medinah and Meccah referred 
to, 356 


396 


Bushire, the newspapers of, 136 

Bustani, Butrus al, 126 

Byng, Lady, formed an International 
Club for Women at Cairo, 217 

Byzantine, nation, the greatest 
national conversion in history that 
of Russia by the, 268; orthodoxy, 
the early Eastern Churches and 
their separation from, 267 


Caetani, Leone, Annali dell’ Islam 
referred to, 270 

Cairo, Al Kubla first printed at, 134; 
American Girls’ College, 213; 
Arab literature in Amman drawn 
from, 165; Arabia depends for 
news almost entirely upon, 134; 
Arabic style of architecture im- 
posed on a certain section of, 205 ; 
Berber doorkeepers of, 160; con- 
ference summoned to meet in, 
postponed, 33, 53; contributed to 
culture of Amman, 159; electric 
trams of, 158; the first Arabic 
newspaper in Egypt published at, 
126; formation of an arts society 
in, 202; hospitals in, 171; the 
intellectual head of Islam, 21, 71; 
Lady Byng formed an International 
Club for women in, 217; meeting 
of Ulama held in, 53; Moayyad 
circulates from Fez to Peking, the, 
124; Moslem presses of, 161; 
ornamentation of the mosque of 
Ibn Tulun at, 199; output of the 
217 printing presses of, 68; plans 
made for a Missionary Training 
School for Moslems in, 309; Press 
favourable during the war to 
Turkey, 133; proposed congress 
in, to settle question of Caliphate, 
41; statue in the station square 
of, 211 

Cairo Conference, referred to, 376 

Cairo School of Oriental Studies, 
commended, 374 

Calcutta, in 1924 one Arabic paper 
‘appeared in, 131; the leading 
English Moslem weekly of India 
until suppressed during the war 
was The Comrade, of, 139 

Caliph, Abdul Mejid Effendi chosen, 
48; appointment of the, by 
sheikhs and delegates an innova- 
tion, 42; at no time spiritual head 
like the Prophet or the Pope, 25; 
fell into degradation, 51; function 
of, the central religio-political 
office in the Moslem community, 
26; futility of recent attempts of 


INDEX 


Moslem rulers to adopt the title 
and claim of the, 26; has not in 
past been interpreter of Moslem 
law, 43; Islamic World Congress 
to elect a, 106; Moslem world has 
for considerable period without 
injury dispensed with a, 42; 
Mufti interpreter of law rather 
than the, 43; Mustafa Kemal 
Pasha being urged to assume 
office of, 55 ; the Nizam of Hydera- 
bad and the Begum of Bhopal 
conferred life-pensions on_ the 
deposed, 99; North African, lost 
independence, 33; political rather 
than religious head, 48, 49-50; 
powers of the, 34, 47; recovery of 
sanctuaries from Wahhabi first 
duty of the new, 42 ; resided in the 
old capital, 51-2; Sunni prayers 
invalid through absence of a, 33; 
Sunnite law requires that there 
be a, 55; title of, usually assumed 
after the winning of sovereignty, 
43; see also Caliphate. 

Caliphate, abolition of the, vii, 7, 10, 
25; 33; 48, 49, 52-4, 55, 96-8 ; 
agitation, influence upon Indian 
women of the, 249; declared to 
be inconsistent with the republican 
form of government, 98; different 
successive dynasties of the, 47; 
Fatimid, 47; foreign usurpers of 
the, 37; has existed in different 
centres, 47; has failed in practice, 
99; incompatible with spirit of 
age and reform, 57-8; Indian 
Moslems and the, 95; Indian 
Moslems hope to see the, restored 
to Turkey, tor; King Fuad of 
Egypt, the Amir of Afghanistan, 
and Ibn Saud, King of Nejd, 
mentioned in India as possibilities 
for the, ror; proposed congress in 
Cairo to settle the question of the, 
41; Sultan Salim founder of the 
Ottoman, 48; succession to. the, 
34, 36; temporal power very 
essence of the, 95 ; see also Caliph. 

Caliphate, The, Sir Thomas Arnold, 
quoted, 50, 54, 56 

Cambridge, Dr. Rashdall’s speech at 
the Conference of 1921 at, referred 
to, 313; Modern Churchmen’s 
Conference held in, 150 

Carlyle, Thomas, Bosworth Smith, and 
others, Muslim Tract Depot prints 
pamphlets giving favourable judg- 
ments of, 311; Essay on Moham- 
med, referred to, 142 


—. ee eee 


INDEX 


Cassel, Walter R., Supernatural 
Religion referred to, 312 

Castagné, Joseph, ‘‘ Le Bolshevisme 
et Islam,” in Revue du Monde 
Musulman, quoted, 152, 153 

Caucasus, Baku the chief centre of 
the Moslem Press in the, 145 

Censorship, became more severe in 
Turkey, 127; Egyptian Press 
during the war the victim of, 133; 
from 1909 to 1922 Egypt was under 
strict, 132; has prevented an 
alliance of Bolshevism and Islam 
in the Press of India and Egypt, 153 

Census of India, r92z, quoted, 250-1 

Central Khilafat Committee, and 
the Jamiat-ul-Ulama-t-Hind, joint 
reply to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, 
96-8; sent a delegation to Lon- 
don and to the Peace Conference 
at Paris, 95; mentioned, 93; 
started, 95; see also Khilafat 
Committee. 

Central Provinces, and Berar, list of 
Moslem newspapers in, 386; num- 
ber of Moslem periodicals in the, 
138 

Ceylon, the extent of present-day 
Moslem journalism in Afghanistan, 
India, and, 138-40 

Chambers, Rev. Dr. William N., of 
Adana, quoted, 16-17 

Change, Divisions in Islam evidence 
of internal, 3; evident since the 
beginning of the century in every 
Moslem land, 24; Islam under- 
going revolutionary social, 8; 
marked throughout Islam to-day, 
18 ; possibility of, in Islam denied, 3 

Charaawi Pasha, Hoda, formation of 
“The Egyptian Feminist Union 
for Woman suffrage ’’ in the home 
oir 2e2 

Chatelier, Professor A. le, of Paris, 
quoted, 124 

Chicago, the Ahmadiya community 
in, 315 

Child labour in Persia restricted by 
laws secured by Bishop Linton, 
223-4 

Child marriage, conditions in Persia 
produced by, 220-2 

Child welfare, 223, 242 

China, attempts to reconcile Islam 
and the demands of modern thought 
in, 14; extent of present-day 
Moslem journalism in, 143-4; gives 
to Mohammedans a status equiva- 
lent to that of a racial group, 10; 
Mohammedans of, 367; organized 


397 


efforts to promote Islam in, 12; 
Persian Church carried missionary 
work into, 267 

Chinese, Mohammedan newspapers 
and periodicals, only three or four 
in 1917, 143; Mohammedanism 
to-day, a view of, 143; political 
newspapers in the Dutch East 
Indies, 142 

Christendom, attitude toward Islam 
of diplomatic and commercial, 
II4-15; missionary attitude of the 
Churches of, 119; phases of opinion 
regarding Islam reflected in litera- 
ture of, 118 

Christian, attitude toward Islam, 
viii; Church, challenge to the, 
163-4; conception of Jesus 
Christ totally different from the 
Moslem, 349; conceptions, in- 
creasing Moslem acceptance of, 
356-7; countries, Moslem immi- 
grants in, 112-13; domination of 
Moslem races, war destroyed fear 
of and respect for, 6; educational 
institutions, willingness of Indian 
Moslems to place their daughters 
in, 252; faith, there is involved the 
essential victory of our, 378-9; 
ideas, Bahai propaganda _ shot 
through and through with, 310; 
missions burdened with the wrong 
political traditions, 28; missions 
failed for the first two centuries in 
their work among the Jews, 28; 
missions, orthodox apologetic liter- 
ature of Islam to-day largely 
affected by the work of, 305-6; 
model, the Ahmadiya Movement 
both in its organization and in its 
publications follows the, 309-10; 
newspaper, in 1880 the American 
Mission began to publish a, 126; 
work, among Moslems, the posi- 
tive, constructive, irenic, and 
sympathetic spirit, method, and 
approach in, 370; writers, bureau 
to promote co-operation among, 
165 

Christian Literature in Moslem Lands 
cited, 68; quoted, 8; referred to, 
68, 372 

Christian Literature for Moslems, 
Co-ordinating Committee on, 372 

Christianity, and Islam near enough 
one to the other to be vitally 
influenced by each* other, 26; 
accused of polytheism, 313; and 
Islam, redemption the core of the 
issue between, 314-15 ; and Western 


398 


civilization keenly discussed by 
Moslems, 65; attacked increasing- 
ly from the standpoint of higher 
criticism in the West, 68; duty of, 
toward Islam, 354-5; education 
perhaps the greatest contribution 
to Islam to be made by, 321; 
fundamental issue between Islam 
and, is their idea of God, 345-6; 
has modern, a gospel capable of 
producing a spiritual reformation 
of Islam? 27; inculcation of 
secular Western ideas does not 
bring Islam nearer to, 69; Islam 
cannot be reformed by a reduced, 
of the First Article, 27; Islam held 
to be a richer extension of, 343; 
Islam’s early attitude toward, 
friendly, 342-3; issue between 
Islam and, fundamental, 344-6; 
the Koran and the Traditions show 
Mohammed had no true conception 
of, 341-2; Mohammed had access 
only to corrupt or inadequate 
representations of, 341; Moslem 
Press adopts arguments of liberal, 
150; the only remedy for the ills 
of Islam, 356; outposts of, 264; 
reforms in Islam due largely to 
contacts with, 354; ‘scientific 
method ”’ should be applied, not 
only to claims of Islam, but also to 
claims of, 180; spiritual develop- 
ment of Islam influenced by 
Hellenized, 27; unorthodox Mos- 
lem apologetic uses the methods of, 


309; Zaghloul Pasha produced 
closer relations between Islam 
and, 6 


» 03 

Christians, attitude toward Islam 
that, should hold, 357; influence 
exerted in Moslem countries by, 
112; of the West, attitude toward 
the ancient Oriental Churches held 
by, 264 ; rejected divine mission of 
Mohammed, 82; should be fore- 
most to feel and express the spirit 
of kindness, 343 

Church, the Abyssinian, 263; and 
State separated in Turkey, 10; 
the Armenian, 263; challenge to 
the Christian, 163-4; the Coptic, 
263; the Eastern Orthodox, 263; 
the Edessene, made innumerable 
conquests from Mazdeism, 266; 
effect in Moslem lands of dis- 
establishment of the, 186-7; the 
enormous Asiatic, created by the 
Nestorians, 267; the Jacobite, 
263; the Moslem Indian view of 


INDEX. 


the separation of the, and State, 
103-4 ; movement toward separa- 


tion of State and, 186; the 
‘** Nestorian,”’ 263; supervision of 
education, 186; the ‘“ Syrian 


Orthodox,” 263 

Church Missionary Society in Egypt, 
the, 275 

Churches, the ancient Oriental, 263 ; 


disillusioned by frequent dis- 
appointments in converts from 
Islam, the, 283; in the East, 


historic developments have tended 
to turn the, into something like 
nations, 282-3 

Churchill, N., in 1843 a Turkish 
weekly was established by, 126 

Cinema, influence of the, 67 

Cities of North-West Africa, religious 
life of Moslem women in the, 241-2 

Citroén car, the, 233 

Clarke, James Freeman, Ten Great 
Religions quoted, 347-8 

Coercion in missionary work, 329-30 

College for Women, Constantinople, 
212 

Colleges and universities, increasing 
numbers of Indian girls now 
studying in, 252; Moslem, at 
Aligarh, Vaniyambadi, Peshawar, 
Hyderabad, and Lahore, 8; Mos- 
lem youth sent to European and 
American, 179; power of con- 
structive element in Moslem youth 
of to-day due to education in, 
established from America or 
Britain, 73; up-to-date, estab- 
lished in many of the great Moslem 
centres, 4 


Colombo, boarding-schools for Mos- . 


lem girls needed in, 252; The 
Crescent, of, quoted, 151 
Commentary on The Holy Qur’an, 319 


Commentary on the Koran cited, 


313 

Committee of Fine Arts, formed in 
Egypt to advise the Ministry of 
Education, 203 

Communism, Inqgilab and Kyzyl 
Bairak preach, to all Turkistan, 152 

Conciliation, a strong spirit of, can 
be found in present-day Islam, 
342-3 

Condition de la Femme dans I’Is- 
lamisme, La, referred to, 321 

Conference, findings of the North 
Africa, with reference to work for 
the young, 371 

Sepaneee of Lausanne, ‘mentioned, 
165 





INDEX 


Conferences of Christian Workers 
among Moslems, brought together 
most representative and influential 
group of such workers ever assem- 
bled, 362; found there had been 
relative neglect of Moslems on the 
part of Protestant Christian forces, 
366-9 ; organization of the, 362-3 ; 
revealed the marvellous accessi- 
bility of the Moslem world to 
Christian influences, 364-6; re- 
vealed the weakening and dis- 
integration of Islam, 363-4; 
timely, 361 

Conferences of Christian Workers 
among Moslems, 1924, quoted, 
177-8, 179, 376, 55 

Congress, Islamic World, to elect a 
Caliph, 41, 106 

Constantinople, bad feeling between 
Angora and, 51; College for 
Women, 212; a daily paper of, 
conducted a discussion of the 
Personality of Christ, 366; the 
number of Turkish newspapers and 
magazines in, 128-9 ; old capital of 
Turkey, 51; sent I,000 women 
delegates to the Teachers’ Associa- 
tion meeting in Angora in 1924, 
212; the Turkish Press to-day at, 
130 

Constitutional Government adopted 
by Persia, 10 

Conversion, of Moslem lands by 
indigenous missionary forces, syl- 
logism regarding, 279-80; of 
Moslems looked upon with abhor- 
rence by the ancient Oriental 
Churches, 273-4; of Moslems 
possible and of actual occurrence, 
369; of a woman married to a 
Moslem impossible, open, 244; to 
Islam, elements involved in, 86-7 

Converts, from Islam have not been 
assimilated in the ancient Oriental 
Churches, 283; from Islam must 
be received in the attitude of 
friendliness, 284, 286 

Co-operation, among the Christian 
forces at work among Moslems, 
closer, 376-7; between native and 
Western education, 193 

Coppée, Henry, History of the Con- 
quest of Spain by the Arab Moors 
quoted, 169-70 

Coptic Church, The, 263 

Coptic monks of Egypt revived 
Christianity in Abyssinia, 268 

Council of Western Asia and North 
Africa, the plan of a, 377 


399 


Crafts, in Egypt, education in, 207 ; 
a school of artistic, 202 

Craftsman, looked upon as a workman 
rather than as an artist, 201; 
Moslem art increasingly the art of 
the, 200 

Crawford, Stewart, of Beirtit, quoted, 
14 

Crimea, Tarjaman an 
newspaper of the, 144 

Critical Exposition of the Popular 
‘* Jihad” cited, 308; quoted, 309 

Criticism, differences among mission- 
aries regarding Biblical, 312-13 ; of 
the missionary programme, I19 

Cromer, Lady, Dispensaries opened in 
1908, 217; Lord, Modern Egypt, 
referred to, 3; period of liberty of 
the Press in Egypt under Lord, 132; 
verdict of Lord, challenged by 
present-day Moslem journalism, 148 

Crucifixion, the Moslem view of the, 
315 

Crusaders, model of approach to 
Islam should be furnished by 
Raymond Lull, not by the, 343 

Crusaders of the Twentieth Century 
quoted, 343, 348; referred to, 347 

Cunningham, William, Western Civilt- 
zation tn tts Economic Aspect i 
Ancient Times quoted, 57 

Cyprus, Arabic papers published in, 
131 


important 


Dacca, Peace, published in, 139 

Damascus, girls being sent to Beirit 
for their education, 214; men- 
tioned, 158, 159, 165, 171 


Dardanelles, Turkish papers pub- 
lished in the, 129 
Davenport, John, Apology for 


Muhammed and the Qur'an referred 
to, 311 

de Goeje, M. J., Mémoire sur la 
conquéte de la Syrie referred to, 270 

Decoration the outstanding purpose 
of the art of Egypt, 200 

Delhi, the need of books for women 
urged by a missionary of, 254 

Demak, publication activities at, 141 

Democracy, desire for, in Turkey, in 
place of theocracy, Io 

Democratic and constitutional forms 
of government sought on every 
hand, vii 

Dervish orders, absence of mystic lore 
in the standard works of the, 295-6; 
orders despised, 298; orders in 
Egypt, founder of the, 295 ; orders 
recognize al-Jilani as their founder, 


400 INDEX 


295; orders started, 293; orders, 
vitality of the modern, 26 
Dervishes, organization a _ strong 
factor in the strength of the, 296 
Dervishism, 300 
Development of Modern Turkey as 
Measured by its Press, The, cited, 
127, 128; quoted, 125-6, 128, 


129-30 

Diarbekr, Turkish papers published 
in, 129 

Din, Muhammad, head of the 
Ahmadiya community in Chicago, 


315 

Discipleship, Christ’s definition of, 

3 _ 

Disintegration, forces making for, in 
Islam, 75 

Divorce, evil in Syria, 226; evil, 
temporary marriages and the, 
225-6; in Moslem India, 257; 
Moslem law in India governing, 
108; Moslem polygamy and, 9; 
quotation from a Turkish lawyer 
on marriage and, 8-9; system in 
Palestine, the easy, 226 

Drama, the beginnings of a local, 202 

Drews, Pagan Christs theory of, 310, 
313 

Ducrocq, Georges, referred to, 152 

Durban, Central Africa published at, 


135 

Dutch East Indies, Bolshevist pro- 
paganda in the, 72; Moslems have 
a rising spirit of self-determination 
in the, 11; Moslems of the, seeking 
a modern education, 5; periodical 
survey of the Press of the, 142; 
population of the, 140; present- 
day Moslem journalism in Malaysia 
and the, 140-2 

Dwight, Henry O., 
quoted, 350-1 


in Missions, 


Eastern Churches, see Ancient Orien- 
tal Churches. 

Ecclesiastical Law set aside in civil 
affairs in Egypt, 10 

Edessa, a base of ancient Oriental 
Christendom, 266 

Edessene and Persian Churches, isola- 
tion of the early, 267 

Edib Bey, Eshref, quoted, 7 

Education, agnosticism in many 
Moslems a product of Western, 24 ; 
art almost entirely neglected in the 
Egyptian system of, 201; as 
political power, 191; changes in 
policy necessary in, 190-2; Com- 
mittee of Fine Arts recently formed 


in Egypt to advise the Ministry of, 
203; contribution of Western 
education to native, 193; dervish 
orders despised by those having 
even the rudiments of a Western, 
298; desire of Moslems for, as 
given in missionary institutions, 
178; effect of disestablishment of 
Church in Moslem lands on, 186-7 ; 
failure to provide efficient systems 
of primary, 173; first means of 
contact with Moslems, 176; for 
girls being successfully promoted 
by the Persians, 214; girls being 
sent from Damascus to Beirfit for 
their, 214; government systems 
of, 172; including that of girls, 
compulsory, in Egypt, 212; in 
crafts in Egypt, 207; increase in 
numbers of Moslem youth receiving 
a Western, viii, 4; indirect in- 
fluence of Western, £31908. uaa 
Moslem lands entered a’ new 
epoch, 187; intelligent Moslems 
have begun to agitate for better, 8 ; 
in the Near East, 173; low state 
of, particularly among women, a 
cause of the backwardness of 
Islamic civilization, 7; Ministry in 
Egypt sending young women 
abroad for study, 213; Moslem 
women in the Near East beginning 
to demand an, 212; movement, 
India aroused from her lethargy by 
the revolutionary modern, 108; 
Mrs. Moulvi’s resolution on female, 


253;  mecessary to rouse the 


ancient Oriental Churches and 
Eastern Christians to action, 286-7; 
need of Western systems in Moslem, 
172-3; of girls in North-West 
Africa, 233; of women, eagerness 
of men and women in India to 
promote the cause of, 252; of 
women in Egypt, progress of the, 
212-13; of women in India, 250-1 

of women in Mesopotamia, en- 
thusiasm for the, 214; of women 
in Turkey, an organized movement 
for the, 212; perhaps Christianity’s 
greatest contribution to Islam, 321; 
place and function of mission, in 
Moslem lands, 194-5; renaissance 
of Arabic culture and, 183; results 
of Western, 180; value of scientific 
method in, 174; Western, an 
established fact in Moslem lands, 
179; Western methods of, in 
Moslem lands, 172-3; Western, 
opposed to Oriental method, 176-7 ; 


INDEX 


women and girls in the Sudan 
learning the value of, 215 

Educational, systems maintained by 
non-Protestant bodies, 174; work, 
prime object of, 178 

Educational movement, classes of 
women in India reached by the, 
251 ; in Syria, the Moslem women’s, 
214; of the Islamic world, women 
of Turkey lead the, 212 

Educational opportunity among girls 
of India at present almost limitless, 


252 

Edward I of England visited by the 
archdeacon of Yaballaha III, 268 

Egypt, after the war, societies formed 
by women in, 217; and Turkey in 
disfavour in North-West Africa, 
235-6; and Turkey, legislation to 
ameliorate the condition of women 
in, 222-3; art gallery needed in, 
206; art in, awaiting a new 
influence from outside, 201; art 
of, strongly imitative, 199; the 
art of the painted picture as an end 
in itself never developed in, 200; 
censorship has prevented an 
alliance of Bolshevism and Islam 
in the Press of India and, 153; 
the Church Missionary Society in, 
275; compulsory education clause 
in the Constitution of, 212; claims 
fellowship with no other Moslem 
country, I; commercial relations 
of Great Britain in, 114; contacts 
with West mainly political in, 188 ; 
decoration the outstanding object 
of the art of, 200; desire to learn 
from democracy in, 191; educa- 
tional systems more efficient in 
Palestine, portions of North Africa, 
and, 173; education in crafts in, 
207; the extent of present-day 
Moslem journalism in Arabia, 
Mesopotamia, and, 130-4; the 
first government girls’ school in, 
217; first Arabic newspaper in, 
126; founder of the dervish orders 
in, 295; the Government began 
journalism in, 126; a growing 
feeling of national unity between 
Moslems and Christians in, 17; 
growth of enrolment of girls in 
government schools in, 213; the 
growth of journalism in, 126; has 
set aside ecclesiastical law in civil 
affairs, 10; immense latent power 
of the dervishes in, 296; large 
sums of money allocated to indus- 
trial schools in, 203; _ literacy 


27 


401 


statistics among the women of, 
214; modernism everywhere felt 
in, 25; Moslem young women 
attend mission schools in, 214; 
Miss Nebaweeya Moosa made 
Superintendent of Girls’ Schools in, 
213; need of up-to-date machinery 
in, 207-8; new constitutional 
monarchy in, 185 ; newspapers and 
periodicals in, 130-4; non-observ- 
ance of harem customs at gradua- 
tion exercises of American Mission 
girls’ schools in, 218-19; passage 
of the marriage law now under 
consideration in, 225; plans for 
the erection of new arts and crafts 
schools in, 203; polygamy in, 
224-5; proposal regarding control 
of designs of public buildings in, 
203; rapid disappearance of the 
veil in, 218-19 ; a school of fine arts 
and a school of artistic crafts 
established in, 202; students sent 
on educational missions to Europe 
for the schools of, 201; sum of 
£10,000 granted to Committee of 
Fine Arts by the Parliament of, 
203; textile industries in, 208; 
women taking a prominent part in 
the revival of art in, 208; young 
women sent abroad for study by 
the Ministry of Education of, 213 


‘‘Egyptian Feminist Union for 
Woman Suffrage,’ formation of 
the, 222 


Ellinwood, Frank F., Oriental Re- 
ligions and Christianity referred to, 
355 

Emin, Ahmed, The Development of 
Modern Turkey as Measured by tts 

Press quoted, 126, 127, 128, 129, 


130 

Emin Bey, Mehmed, quoted, 70 

Encyclopedia Britannica, eighteen 
sets sold in two years to Arab 
customers in a single book-shop in 
Iraq, 6 

Encyclopedia of Islam referred to, 144 

Endor, Sheikh of, 64 

England, The Islamic Review pub- 
lished at Woking, 145; rule of, in 
Egypt being replaced, 185 

English, India has several important 
Mohammedan papers in, 138; 
language used extensively in Mos- 
lem Apologetic in India and Egypt, 
311 ; number of Moslem periodicals 
in, 138 

Equality, Mohammed preached prin- 
ciples of, 83, 89 


402 


Erigena, Johannes Scotus, 292 

Erzerum, Turkish papers published 
in, 129 

Ethnic elements, North Africa con- 
tains two distinct, 236 

Europe, attitude of Indian Moslem 
women toward the feminist move- 
ments in America and, 107; cer- 
tain that the new influence needed 
in Egyptian art will come from, 
201; the extent of present-day 
Moslem journalism in America, 
Australia, and, 145-7; influence 
of, upon the status of women in 
North-West Africa, 235; isolation 
of, during the Middle Ages, 21-2 ; 
Moslem youth sent to universities 
of America and, 179; parallel 
between the Near East and the 
Catholic countries of, 23; the 
plough of, 232; Renaissance in, 
22-3; Renaissance and Reforma- 
tion in, 23; students from Egyp- 
tian schools sent on educational 
missions to, 201 

European writers, Moslem apologists 
take advantage of favourable refer- 
ences of, 310-11 

Evangelization, of a country by its 
own Christian community a pro- 
minent missionary goal, 279; of 
Islam, ancient Oriental Churches 
should be viewed as allies in the 
cause of, 264; of Moslems, assimi- 
lation of converts in the Christian 
community a pre-requisite of, the, 
284; Wway is open in the Moslem 
world to widespread and direct, 


370 


Fahmy, Mansur, La Condition de la 
Femme dans VIslamisme referred 
to, 321; wrote proving that the 
Prophet was not in favour of 
women’s advancement, 216-17 

Fairbairn, Principal, in Contemporary 
Review, referred to, 3 

Faith of Islam, The, quoted, 56, 57 

Family life in Kabylia, 239-40 

Feminist, movement accompanied 
political liberty in Turkey, 128; 
movement in Egypt, commented 
upon in Al Kibla, 148; movement 
in Persia represented by Zehan, 
137; movements in Europe and 
America, attitude of Indian Moslem 
women toward, 107 

Fez, Akhbar Telegrafia the only 
Arabic newspaper published at, 135 

Fine Arts, a school of, 202 


INDEX 


Forgiveness of sins, Moslems do not 
understand the price of, 333-4 
France, Arabic papers published in, 
131; three Islamic papers pub- 
lished in, 145 

French, Anti-Christian pamphlets in, 
311; protectorate in Syria, 185 

Fréres, schools of the, 174 

Fuad, King of Egypt, mentioned in 
India as candidate for the Caliphate, 
101; officially opened the last arts 
exhibition in Cairo, 202 

Futa, the Almamy Peul of, 124 


Gairdner, W. H. T., The Muslim Idea 
of God referred to, 347 

Gardner, W. R. W., The Qurdnic 
Doctrine of God referred to, 347 

Gasprinsky, Ismail Bey, editor of 
Millet, 144 

General Conference at Jerusalem, 
proposals mooted at the, 165 

German diplomacy, success of, in 
leading Moslems to believe Ger- 
many their only friend among 
Christian nations, 116 

Ghamara, 293 

Gibb, E. J. W., A History of Ottoman 
Poetry quoted, 126 

Giffen, Dr. J. Kelly, quoted, 215, 227 

Girl Guides, a Government school for 
girls in Iraq seeks to start a troop 
of, 218 

Girls, being sent from Damascus to 
Beirit for their education, 214; 
a definite clause in the Constitution 
of Egypt, providing for compulsory 
education, including that of, 212; 
a fine training school for, in 
Smyrna, 212; first government 
school in Egypt for, 217; in 
government schools in Egypt, 
growth of enrolment of, 213; 
learning to read in North-West 
Africa, 233; now studying: in 
primary, middle, and high schools, 
colleges, and universities in India, 
251-2; Persians successfully pro- 
viding education for, 214 

God, fundamental issue between 
Islam and Christianity in their idea 
of, 345-6; of Islam, Moslem. 
apologists have sought to Christian- 
ize the, 346; the Moslem view of, 
347; the seven attributes of, 
according to the Moslems, 346 

Goldsack, William, God in Islam 
referred to, 347; Mohammed and 
the Bible referred to, 342; ‘* The 
Moslem Press of Bengal,” in The 








INDEX 


oped World, 1917, referred to, 

13 

Goldziher, Ignacz, Muhammedanische 
Studien referred to, 308 

Good Shepherd, parable of the, 334-5 

Gorst, Sir Eldon, control of the Press 
in Egypt strictly enforced under, 


132 

Gottheil, Richard J. H.; Dhimmis and 

- Moslems in Egypt referred to, 270 

Great Britain, commercial rela- 
tions in Egypt of, 144; colleges 
and universities established from 
America, or, 73; has aroused keen 
nationalistic feelings by favouring 
the Jews in Palestine, 65; treaty 
of 1922 between Iraq and, 16 

Gressee, publication activities at, 141 

Groups, division of mankind into, 84 ; 
in Islam which still hold deep con- 
viction, 344 

Growth of Islam, 36, 82, 84, 85 

Gujarat, need for a girls’ school in, 
252 

Gujarati, number of Moslem periodi- 
cals in, 138 


Haifa, mentioned, 157 

Hamburg Kolonial Institut, collec- 
tion of Arabic newspapers and 
journals purchased in Beirit for, 
131 

Hamid, Abdul, would not authorize 
the publication of a single new 
periodical, 127; II, failed in his 
attempt to project a jihad, 11 

Hanoum, Latife, wife of Mustafa 
Kemal Pasha, 215-16 

Harem customs, non-observance of, at 
graduation exercises of American 
Mission girls’ schools in Egypt, 
218-19 

Hartmann, cited as to number of 
papers in Egypt in 1898, 132; in 
Encyclopedia of Islam, referred to, 
144 

Hassan, Sultan, mosque of, 204 

Hauri, Johannes, Der Islam, quoted, 


347 
Hay, Lady Drummond, ‘‘ The Press | 


in Egypt,” in The Near East, 1924, 
referred to, 132, 133 

Hazm, Ibn, 305 

Hejaz, government, Al Kubla, the 
semi-official organ of the, 148; 
King of the, 33; railroad link 
between Amman and the, 157 

Herat, the newspapers of, 136 

Hifnawi, Sheikh, Kafayat at-Talibin, 
referred to, 310 











403 


Higher criticism in the West furnish- 
ing increasingly the materials for 
attacks upon Christianity in modern 
Islamic literature, 68 

Histoire des Mongols quoted, 54 

History of the Conquest of Spain by the 
Arab Moors quoted, 169-70 

History of Ottoman Poetry, A, quoted, 
126 

History of Perstan Literature in 
Modern Times, A, referred to, 136 

Holy Quran, The, referred to, 313; 
containing the Arabic Text with 
English Translation and Com- 
mentary, quoted from and dis- 
cussed, 318-20 

Home Rule, in India, Moslems op- 
posed to granting a larger measure 
of, 105 

Hospital and school work in North- 
West Africa, 244 

Houghton, Lord, quoted and referred 
to, 3 

Hussein, King of the Hejaz, Moslems 
of India promptly repudiated 
assumption of title of Caliph by, 
99-100 

Hyderabad, Moslem college at, men- 
tioned, 8; the Nizam of, see Nizam 
of Hyderabad, the; Osmania 
University at, 106 

Hygiene, propaganda for public, 223 


Ibn Tulun, imitative character of the 
ornamentation of the Mosque of, 199 

Idealism, the opportunity of the 
Christian West to impart to the 
ancient Eastern Churches its 
fresher, 265 

Ihy@’u Ulam ad-Din referred to, 293 

Ijtihad, India’s attitude toward, 
1o1-2; Sir Muhammad Iqbal’s 
essay on, quoted, 98, 102, 103, 108 ; 
a positivist journal, 130 

Ikhwan, movement in Central Ara- 
bia, 26; or brothers, the, 297-8 

Immigrant Press and tts Control, The, 
quoted, 146 

Impacts, between Islam and the 
Western World, enumerated and 
analysed, 4-6; influences of the, of 
Western life, upon Islamic world 
discussed, 6-18; of Christians upon 
Moslem countries, 112; of govern- 
ment educational programme on 
peoples, 147 

Imperialism, every Moslem mission- 
ary an advance agent for Moslem, 
326; the missionary asa lieutenant 
for Western, 327 


404 


Incarnation, the Bahais’ conception 
of the, 314 

India, Ahmadiya movement a result | 
of the attempt to meet new condi- 
tions in, 14; the Ahmadiyas of, 
139; Arabic still prevails as the 
language of the Moslem religion in, 
105 ; assumption of title of Caliph 
by King of the Hejaz repudiated by 
the Moslems of, 99-100; attitude of 
women of, toward purdah, 107; 
attitude toward feminist move- 
ments in Europe and America 
manifested by Moslem women of, 
107; Bolshevik feeling in British, 
72; censorship has prevented an 
alliance of Bolshevism and Islam 
in the Press of Egypt and, 153; 
chief aims of the Khilafat Com- 
mittee in, 105-6; Christian mis- 
sionary work for Moslems _ is 
seriously undermanned in, 367; 
classes of women reached by the 
education movement in, 251; 
conspicuous examples of leadership 
among the Moslem women of, 254 ; 
divorce in Moslem, 257; duty of 
Islamic, to take lead in advancing 
Islamic learning, 94; eagerness of 
men and women to promote the 
cause of women’s education in, 
$52); educational opportunity 
among the women of, 252; eman- 
cipation along religious lines of the 
Moslem women of, 258-9; extent 
of present-day Moslem journalism 
in Afghanistan, Ceylon, and, 138- 
40; girls now © studying 
increasing numbers in primary, 
middle, and high schools, colleges, 
and umiversities in, 252; has a 
vision of a federated world of 
Islam, 108; has several important 
Mohammedan papers in English, 
138; hostility to Western power 
does not indicate unwillingness to 
learn in, 190; influence of the 
Caliphate agitation upon the life 
of women in, 249; the influence of 
the Press in, 139; King Fuad of 
Egypt, the Amir of Afghanistan, 
and Ibn Saud of Nejd mentioned 
as possibilities for the Caliphate by 
the Moslems of, ror ; list of Moslem 
newspapers in, 383-90; literacy of 
the women of, 250-1; literacy 
statistics among the women of, 
249; magazines for women in, 253; 
the marriage relation and the 
Moslem women of, 255; Moslem, 


in 


INDEX 


at the cross-roads, 108; Moslem 
attitude toward emancipation of 
women in, 107; Moslem law 
governing divorce in, 108 ; Moslem 
opinion in, as to the abolition of the 
Caliphate, 98 ; Moslem population 
of, 93 ; Moslem population opposed 
to a larger measure of Home Rule 
in, 105; Moslem, to-day keenly 
sensitive to all that goes on in the 
Moslem world, 94; Moslems com- 
bining with the Hindus against the 
British as their ‘‘ common enemy ” 
in, 13; Moslems of, and the 
Caliphate, 95 ; Moslems of, and the 
war, 94-5 ; national Islamic schools 
in, 106; the Nationalist movement 
among Moslems in, 104; Orthodox 
mulvis still lead the Moslem masses 
of, 108; Persian Church carried 
missionary work into, 267; poly- 
gamy in Moslem, 256; Press of 
Cairo responded to pulse of the 
nationalists in, 133; professions 
entered by the women of, 254-5; 
progress in literature for women in, 
253; purdah system still cherished 
by the Moslem women of, 257; 
reaction to nationalist movement in 
other parts of the Moslem world 
shown by Moslems in, 105; separa- 
tion of Church and State as viewed 
in, 103-4; surprising agreement as 
to changes taking place in the life 
of women in, 249; tanzim, or the 
organization and improvement of 
the Moslem community in, 106 

India, a Bird’s-Eye View, cited, 355; 
quoted, 12 

Indian Khilafat Deputation to the 
Viceroy, Delhi, January 19, 1920, 
address quoted, 95 

Indigenous missionary forces, a 
syllogism regarding the conversion 
of Moslem lands by, 279-80 

Insabato, Dr. Enrico, L’Islam et la 
Politique des Allhiés cited, 116 

Insulinde, contacts between the Near 
East and, 140 

Intellectual awakening resulting from 
increasing tendency of observing 
Moslems to note differences between 
their own and Western civiliza- 
tion, 7 

International and interracial rela- 
tions, Islam and, ix 

International Club for women formed 
at Cairo by Lady Byng, 217 

International College, Smyrna, men- 
tioned, 74 





INDEX 


International Missionary Council, 
conferences of Christian workers 
among Moslems held at the initia- 
tive and under the auspices of the, 
361-2 

International Moslem Association, in 
Shanghai, 143 

International Women’s Convention in 
Rome, 222-3 

Interracial and international rela- 
tions, Islam and, ix 

Iqbal, Sir Muhammad, quoted, 98-9, 
102, 103-4, 108 

Iraq, Boy Scout Movement remark- 
ably successful in, 218; a brave 
fight against polygamy going on in, 
227; experimenting with a con- 
stitutional monarchy, 186 ; govern- 
ment of, does not claim divine 
sanction, 10; the Press of, 134; 
Treaty of 1922 between Great 
Britain and, 16; the Woman’s 
Movement in, 217-18; see also 
Mesopotamia. 

Irving, Washington, Mahomet, re- 
ferred to, 356 

Isabella Thoburn College, 252, 259 

Isfahan, the newspapers of, 136 

Islam, definition of the Arabic word, 
356 

Islamics, need of more training of 
missionaries in, 374 

Ismaili, 93 

Ismail Pasha, Khedive, 217 

Issue, between Christianity and Islam 
fundamental, the, 344-6; between 
Christianity and Islam, redemption 
the very core of the, 314-15; 
between Islam and Christianity, 
differing idea of God the funda- 
mental, 345-6; between Islam and 
Christianity raised historically by 
the former, the, 341 

Italian schools in Moslem lands, 174 

Italy, Arabic papers published in, 131 

Izhar al Haqq, a French version of, 
311; quotation from, 307 ; referred 
to, 312 


fofaebe Church, The, 263 

alalabad, the newspapers of, 136 

Jama Masjid, the, Aligarh, 104 

Jamia Millia Islamia, see National 
Moslem University of Aligarh. 

Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind, and _ the 
Central Khilafat Committee, joint 
reply to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, 
96-8; mentioned, 93 

Japan, Islam in, 140 

Java, 140, 141 


405 


Jazirat-ul-Arab, 106 

Jerusalem, English College at, 74; 
Turkish and Arabic papers pub- 
lished in, 129 

Jerusalem Conference, 1924, finding 
on co-operation adopted by the, 
quoted, 377; findings of the, 177-8, 
179; report of the Committee 
on Christian Leadership, quoted, 
376; revealed need of literature 
in the Christian work for Moslems, 
372; specially emphasized need of 
social work, 373 

Jesuit Fathers, schools of the, 174-5 

Jesus Christ, according to the Koran, 
348-9; and the woman at the 
well, 327; character of, applied by 
modern Moslem apologists to 
Mohammed, 320; Christian con- 
ception of, entirely different from 
Moslem, 349; conception of God 
of, 331-4; definition of disciple- 
ship of, 334-7; essential contri- 
bution to Moslems of, 335-6; 
faith of, in mankind, 328-31; 
highly praised in the Moslem Press, 
148-9, 149-50; the humanity of, 
313-14; universality of, 331; 
valuation placed on individual men 
by, 325-28; view of Syed Ameer 
Ali regarding, 349 

Jews, failure for the first two cen- 
turies of Christian missions among 
the, 28; keen nationalistic feelings 
aroused in the Moslem world by 
the controversy in Palestine 
between Arabs and, 65; modern 
Islam likened to the _ shallow 
monotheism of the, 27; rejected 
the divine mission of Mohammed, 
the, 82 

Jidda, port of Mecca, in the hands of 
the Wahhabis, 40 

Jihad, Abdul Hamid IT failed in his 
attempt to project a, 11; failure 
of the call toa, 6 ; modern attempts 
to explain away, 320; waging of, 
one of the functions of the Caliph, 


50 

Jizyah, or the capitation tax, 270 

Jokyakarta, Moslem periodicals pub- 
lished at, 141 

Journal, the first Moslem, published 
in Afghanistan, 140. 

Journalism, begun in Egypt by the 
Government, 126; the call for 
social and religious reform occupies 
a large place in present-day Moslem, 
152; character, outlook, and pro- 
gramme of present-day Moslem, 


406 


147-54; the -extent of present- 
day Moslem, 125-47; the extent 
of present-day Moslem, in the 
Dutch East Indies and Malaysia, 
140-2, in Egypt, Arabia, and 
Mesopotamia, 130-4, in Europe, 
America, and Australia, 145-7, in 
India, Ceylon, and Afghanistan, 
138-40, in Persia, 136-8 ; has freed 
the Arabic language of much of its 
bombast, 153; the importance 
of modern, 153; in Africa, extent 
of present-day Moslem, 134-5; in 
China, extent of present-day Mos- 
lem, 143-4; in Egypt, the growth of, 
126; in Russia, extent of present- 
day Moslem, 144-5; Moslem, 
religious, 148; a new situation 
produced by the modern Moslem, 
123; sprang into frantic life in 
Persia with the revolution, 136; 
see also Journals. 

Journals, more than 800, published in 
Turkey after the revolution, 130; 
see also Journalism, Newspapers, 
the Press. 

Judaism, experienced in the first 
century a renaissance similar to 
that through which Islam is now 
passing, 28 


Kaaba, the round of the holy, 124 

Kabul, Aman-i-Afghan published at, 
140; the first Moslem journal 
to appear in Afghanistan pub- 
lished at, 140; the newspapers of, 
136 

Kabylia, family life in, 239-40 

Kabyle, and Arab women compared, 
the, 240; and Arab women, need 
of shelter-homes and rescue-homes 
for the, 239; tribal code regard- 
ing marriage, 238-9; women, 
character, hfe, and status of the, 
237-8 

Kabyles, effect of residence in France 
upon young Arabs and, 234-5; 
immigration to France of the, 75; 
inhabit the Aurés Mountains, 236; 
the most in evidence of the Berber 
races, 236 

Kalthoff drawn upon by Sheikh 
Rashid Ridha and his followers, 


313 

Kamal, Prince Yousef, 202 

Kanem, the African Zawiya of Bir 
Alali in, 124 

Kashgar, 224 

Kastamani, Turkish papers 
lished in, 129 


pub- 


Kazan, a Aagtons of Moslem journal- 
ism, 14 

Kemal Bastia: Mustafa, 55, 64, 69, 
96-8, 148, 216 

Kerman, the newspapers of, 136 

Kermanshah, the newspapers of, 136 

Khadija, 306 

Khalid, 264 

Khalifa, definition of, 34, 35, 47; 
the local representative of the 
Sheikh al-Sajada, 297 

Khalifat al-Khulafa, or 
vicars, 297 

Khan, Jafar Ali, quoted, 13 

Khan, Mustafa, editor of The Light, 


139 

Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad, cited, 102; 
laid the foundations of the Moslem 
University of Aligarh, 106; the 
revolutionary modern education 
movement inaugurated by, 108; 
writings of, referred to, 308 

Kharput, Turkish and Arabic papers 
published in, 129 

Khilafat Committee, chief aims of the, 
105-6; see also Central Khilafat 
Committee. 

Khoi, the newspapers of, 136 

Khoqand, 144 

Khutba, 53-4 

Kibla, enemies of the, 138 

King George’s Medical 
Lucknow, 252 

Kipling, Rudyard, quoted, 154 

Kitchener, Lord, 204 

Koran, Ahmadiya, Commentary on 
the, 313; Ahmadiya writers seek 
freedom from the body of law that 
has grown up about the kernel 
of legislation in the, 309; al-Jili 
on the, 316-17; and Traditions 
show Mohammed had no true 
conception of Christianity, 341-2; 
a brother-in-law of Mohammed 
defends his claim to succession 
through a text in the, 35; Al 
Manar contains articles on the, 
133; cannot be sold to Christians, 
158; cited, 81; dissatisfaction 
with the religion of the, in Islam, 
227; enemies of the, 138 ; invoked 
to protect women against abuses. 
of the Moslem marriage laws, 223 ; 
Jesus Christ *according to the, 
348-9; law in the, requiring 
husband to support wives without 
discrimination, 148; missionaries 
apt to take it for granted that the 
religion of the land is that of the, 
300; the modernist Moslem view 


vicar of 


College, 





INDEX 


of the, 317-21; the orthodox 
theory of Abrogation in the, 313; 
provisions of the, regarding poly- 
gamy, 256; quoted, 83, 318-19, 
342, 346, 348; Ramatu’llah on 
the, 316; referred to, 83, 88, 146; 
taught in the National Islamic 


schools, 106; the Woking, 15; 
‘see also Holy Qur'an. 
Kraemer, Dr. H., survey of the 


contents of the Press of the Dutch 
East Indies by, 142 

Kuttar, a Bedouin, paraphrases the 
parable of the Good Shepherd, 
334-5 


Lagos, West Africa, contributors 
from, to the building of the new 
mosque at Berlin, 139 

Lahore, an article in The Daily 
Observer of, 124; The Islamic 
World published at, 139; The 
Light, published at, 139; Moslem 
college at, mentioned, 8; Muslim 
Book and Tract Depot at, 309; 
The Muslim Outlook published at, 
139; Tahzib un Niswan, published 
at, 253; Urdu edition of The 
Islamic Review, published at, 145 

Lane-Poole, Stanley, referred to, 3 

Languages, Arabic regarded as sacred 
among, 5; European, have found 
a place in the more advanced 
modern schools, 5; knowledge of 
Western, a means of contact 
between Islamic and non-Moslem 
lands, 5; of the Dutch East 
Indies, the chief, 141 

Lausanne, Conference of, 185 

Law, built up from the Koran, 
Ahmadiya writers seek to free 
themselves from the, 309 

Leadership, among Moslem women in 
India, conspicuous examples of, 254 

League of Moslem Nations pre- 
dicted, 99 

League of Nations, founded on Mo- 
hammed’s religion, 90; through 
the aid of the, Bishop Linton of 
Persia secured laws for the restric- 
tion of child labour, 223-4 

Legal Position of Women in Islam, by 
Syed Ameer Ali, referred to, 321 

Lella Khadija named after a Kabyle 
woman, 237 

Leningrad a_ centre 
journalism, 144 

Levonian, Professor L., 366 


of Moslem 


Liberty, of conscience declared by an | 


educated Turk to be the most 


| 


407 


essential of all forms of liberty, 16 ; 
a feminist movement in Turkey 
accompanied political, 128 

Linguistics, need of more training for 
missionaries in, 374 

Linton, The Rt. Rev. J. H., Persian 
Sketches quoted, 220-2; quoted 
214; secures passage of laws to 
restrict child labour in Persia, 223-4 

Literature, attitude toward Chris- 
tianity produced by Moslem, 161 ; 
a constant stream of French, 
European, and American, 68; 
demand for, follows acquisition of 
a new language, 5; for women in 
India, 253; French, in Amman, 
160; general attempt in Moslem 
countries to reconcile modern 
science and ancient Islam by means 
of a new religious, 13; of Islam 
to-day attacks Christianity in- 
creasingly from the standpoint of 
the higher criticism of the West, 
68; need of, in Christian work for 
Moslems, 372; phases of opinion 
regarding Islam reflected in Chris- 
tian, 118; found in Amman 
included a prayer manual compiled 
by Sheikh, 159-60, 164; prolific 
output of Koranic, 161; rapid 
multiplication of book and 
pamphlet, viii 

Tees Arabic papers published in, 


Pacenon: Isabella Thoburn College, 


252; King George’s Medical Col- 
lege, 252 

Lucknow Conference, 1911, referred 
to, 367, 376 


Lucknow University, 252 

Lull, Raymond, should furnish model 
of approach to Islam, 343 

Luqman, thirteen commandments of, 
to his son, referred to, 146 


Ma’an, 157 
Macdonald, Dr. Duncan B., Aspects 
of Islam referred to, 344: The 


Religious Attitude and Life im 
Islam referred to, 299 

Machinery, need of up-to-date, in 
Egypt, 207-8 

Madagascar has no_ distinctively 
Moslem Press, 135 

Madras, The Moslem Chronicle 


appears at, 139; Presidency, List 
of Moslem newspapers in, 383-4; 
Presidency, number of "Moslem 
periodicals in, 138; Queen Mary’s 
College, 252; Tamil edition of 


408 


The Islamic Review published at, 
145 

Magazines for women in India, 253 

Mahomet, by Washington Irving, re- 
ferred to, 356 

Malabar coast, Syriac language and 
liturgy still to be heard on the, 267 

Malayalam, number of Moslem 
periodicals in, 138 

Malay-Javanese, Tiahaja- -Islam a 
diglot of, 141 

Malaysia, the extent of present-day 
Moslem journalism in the Dutch 
East Indies and, 140-2; signs of 
awakening in, 16 

Malcolm, Napier, Five Years in a 
Persian Town quoted, 344-5, 350 

Malta, two Arabic papers in, 131 

Marabouta soul, a beautiful, 241 

Margoliouth, D. Dy Mohammed and 
the Rise of Islam referred to, 342 

Marriage, agitation over plural, 8; 
and divorce prevalent in Arabia, 
frequent, 226; conditions pro- 
duced by Moslem child, 220-2; 
demand that the age of consent to, 
for a young girl be fixed at sixteen 
years, 223; laws in the Kabyle 
tribal code, 238-9; the movement 
to raise the age of, 220; passage 
of the law of, now under con- 
sideration in Egypt a serious 
matter for Moslem prestige, 225 ; 
reform of laws in regard to, 
demanded so that women may be 
protected against bigamy without 
reason and repudiation without 
serious grounds, 223; reform in 
customs of, demanded so that two 
parties may know each other 
before betrothal, 223 ; relation and 
Indian Moslem women, the, 255; 
Turkish writer demands reforms 
in the laws governing, 8-9 

Marriages, registration and publica- 
tion of, demanded, 9 

Marseilles harbour, 234 

Mason, Isaac, The Moslem World 
quoted, 143 

Mataria, Prince Yousef 
palace at, 202 

Mauritius, a French paper published 
by Moslems at, 135 

Mawardi, quoted, 50 

Mazdeism, the Edessene Church made 
innumerable conquests from, 266 

Mecca, Al Kibla published at, 134; 
Arab literature in Amman drawn 
from, 165; has given up its 
political influence to the Press, 124 ; 


Kamal’s 


INDEX 


indignation at the practices of 
Islam shown by Malay pilgrims 
returning from, 17; Moslem duty 
of pilgrimage to, 39; proposed 
congress in, to settle question of 
Sanctuaries, 41; sanctuary of, in 
hands of Wahhabi ruler, 40; 
Sherif of, 39; the Shurufa of, 
formerly exercised a more extended 
authority than the Khalif, 124; 
slaves from, 157; Turkish and 
Arabic paper published in, 129 

Medan, Moslem periodicals published 
at, I4I 

Medical work, for Moslems, 373; for 
women in the Near and Middle 
East, 220 

Medicine, students of, 171 

Medina, 36, 39; slaves from, 157 

Medressés, Turkey proposed to do 
away with, 53 

Mejid Effendi, Abdul, chosen Caliph, 
48 ; expelled from Turkey, 48; 
misunderstood by Assembly at 


Angora, 52; not satisfied with 
empty existence, 51; see also 
Caliph. 


Mémotre sur la conquéte de la Syrte 
cited, 270 

Meshed, complete liberty in the city 
of, 15; Danish, published at, 137; 
the newspapers of, 136 

Mesopotamia, Anglo-Saxon political 
system in, 336; enthusiasm for 
the education of women in, 214; 
the extent of present-day Moslem 
journalism in Egypt, Arabia, and, 
130-4; the journals of, 134; see 
also Iraq. 

Methods employed to reach Moslems, 
the need of shifting the emphasis 
in the, 371-3 

Mielck, R., notes by, 131 

Mindanao, the Moslems of, 124 

Miracles of Mohammed, the so-called, 
307 . 

Mission Churches, 281-3 

Mission Laique, schools of the, 174-5 

Mission schools, in Egypt, Moslem 
young women attend, 214 

Missionaries, aim of National Islamic 
schools to train Moslem, 106; and 
native workers, need of more 
thorough training of, 373-4; dif- 
ferences among, regarding Bib- 
lical criticism utilized by Moslem 
apologetic writers, 312-13; in the 
East, anti- Christian material pro- 
duced in the West used to attack 
the, 310; must understand the 


INDEX 


heart religion of the Moslem masses, 
300-1 ; protection of converts and, 
necessary, 325-6 

‘Missionary, as lieutenant for Western 
imperialism, the, 327; attitude of 
the churches of Christendom, the, 
119; forces, a theoretical syllogism 
regarding the conversion of Moslem 
lands by indigenous, 279-80 ; goal, 
the evangelization of a country by 
its own Christian community a 
prominent, 279; history of the 
ancient Oriental Churches, 266-8 ; 
ideal of the ancient Oriental 
Churches, the, 266; institutions, 
desire of Moslems for education as 
given in, 178; main business of, 
to reflect Christ, 337; surveys of 
Moslem fields show uneven dis- 
tribution of Christian workers, 
368; work, coercion in, 329-30 

Missionary Training School for Mos- 
lems at Cairo, plans for a, 309 

Missions, arguments of Western 
infidelity and liberal Christianity 
used by the Moslem Press to 
combat the Scriptures and Chris- 
tian, 150; educational phase of, 
176; growth of, in Moslem lands, 
175-6; hampered by Western im- 
perialism, 325; in many reforms 
the Moslem Press is an ally 
of Christian, 153; neglect of 
Islam by Christian, 366; mnon- 
Protestant, 172; revised _ pro- 
cedure necessary in the work of 
Christian, to Moslems, 285; 
students from Egyptian schools 
sent to Europe on educational, 
201; vituperation of Christian, 
I50-I 

Moab, 157 

Modern Churchmen’s Conference, 
1921, account of, quoted from Al 
Manar, 150 

Modern Egypt, Lord Cromer, cited, 3 

Modern Movements among Moslems 

_ quoted, 3 

Modern thought, adoption in Syria of 
methods of Western higher criti- 
cism to make Islam conform to, 
14; attempts to reconcile Chinese 
Mohammedanism with the de- 
mands of, 14; declaration of S. 
Khuda Bukhsh that Moslems are 
free to conform to the demands of, 


14 
Modernism, defeat of the Turks in 

the Balkan War hailed as a victory 

for, 128; in Islam described, 15 


409 


Moehammadia, a Moslem society in 
the Dutch East Indies, the, 141 
Moghul Emperor, Caliph only because 
a Moslem king, 38; proposed that 
he and the Ottoman Emperor each 
have possession of a Sanctuary, 39 

Mohammed, as an all-round example, 
306; as prophet'has no successor, 
47; Caliph means successor to 
Prophet, 47; did not intend to 
preach new religion, 81-2, 90; 
endeavours of present-day ortho- 
dox Moslem apologetic to defend, 
306 ; enforced principle of equality, 
83; fictitious sayings attributed to, 
85; fictitious traditions regarding, 
81; the formula of witness to, 241 ; 
had contact only with corrupt 
and inadequate representations of 
Christianity, 341 ; had no true con- 
ception of Christianity, 341-2; Jews 
and Christians rejected divine 
message of, 82; the so-called 
miracles of, 307; reinterpretation 
of the character of, 320; substi- 
tutes of, 34-5, 37; Wwrongness of 
the Moslem system due to the 
original teaching of, 345 

Mohammed and the Bible referred to, 
342 

Mohammed and the 
referred to, 342 

Mohammedan Commentary on the 
Holy Bible, The, referred to, 342 

Monet, the work of, in relation to 
Egyptian art, 206 

Mongol, conquest terminated Bagh- 
dad Caliphate, 39; Ilkhan rulers 
of Persia honoured the Patriarch 
and metropolitans of the Persian 
Church, 268 

Mongolian alphabets relics of Syriac 
Christian culture, the present, 267 

Monophysitism and Nestorianism 
due largely to) isolation of early 
Eastern Church, 267 

Moosa, Miss Nebaweeya, made 
superintendent of Girls’ Schools in 
Egypt, 213; Woman and Work by, 
referred to, 213 

Moral and social principles, Islam’s 
statutory conception of, contrasted 
with Christ’s living principle of 
spiritual freedom, 351-2 

Morison, Theodore, Principal of the 
Aligharh Moslem University, in 
The Spectator, quoted, 343 

Morocco, Arabic style of architecture 
successfully employed in, 205; 
excellently organized schools being 


Rise of Islam 


410 


opened in, 233; literacy statistics 
of women in, 234; most backward 
in journalism, 135; Sherif of, 56 

Moros, attitude toward Western 
education of Sultan of Sulu, 
religious head of all the, 17; con- 
tent under American rule, the, 11 

Moslem Doctrine of God, The, re- 
ferred to, 347 

Moslem Prayer Book and Catechism, 
by Hamid Snow, 309 

‘Moslem Press and the War, The,”’ 
in The Moslem World, referred to, 


134 

‘Moslem Press of Bengal, The,’’ in 
The Moslem World, cited, 138 

** Moslem View of Christianity, A,’’ 
in The Missionary Review of the 
World, cited, 150 

Moslem World, The, quoted, 124, 
137-8, 143, 315; referred to, 134, 
142, 225, 250 

Moslem world-empire, 84 

Mosul, has two newspaper, 134; 
Turkish and Arabic papers pub- 
lished in, 129 

Moulvi, Mrs., resolution of, on female 
education, 253 

Mufti, Mohammed ‘Abdu of Egypt 
famous, 43; or Sheikh al-Islam, 
rather than Caliph, interpreter of 
the law, 43 

Sn a al Jurisprudence quoted, 
30 

Muhammedanische Studien cited, 308 

Muharram festival, 329 

Muir, Sir William, Annals of the Early 
Caliphate, referred to, 3; quoted, 
169 

Mulvis, Moslem masses of India still 
led by the orthodox, 108 

Music and pictures looked upon by 
the Moslem as unnecessary, 201 

Muslim Book and Tract Depot, at 
Lahore, 309; prints pamphlets 
giving favourable judgments of 
Carlyle, Bosworth Smith, and 
others, 311 

Muslim Idea of God, The, referred to, 


347 
Mussalmani-Bengali, Bible stories for 
Moslem women prepared in, 253-4 
Mu'tazili, mentioned as one of the 
Moslem sects found in India, 93 
Mystic lore, available sermons of 
al-Jilani devoid of, 295; in 
standard works of the Jewish 
orders, absence of, 295-6 
Mysticism, far-reaching character of 
Islamic, 300; of the first six cen- 


INDEX 


turies of Moslem history largely 
individualistic, 292; of the masses 
of Moslem lands imitative and 
traditional, 292; similarities be- 
tween medieval Catholicand Arab, 
293; which has degenerated into 
dervishism the really formative 
influence that moulds the life of 
the Moslem masses, 300 

Mystics, brotherhoods of, and wo- 
men in North-West Africa, 241; 
defined, 291 

Mystics of Islam, The, quoted, 298 


Nain, Sheikh of; mentioned, 64 
Naqib of Baghdad, 214 


Narration of a Year's Journey 
through Central and Eastern Arabia 
quoted, 3 


National, and social aspirations, new, 
vii; Islamic Schools, see Schools, 
National Islamic. 

‘National Church,’ set up in 
Persia, the first, 266 

National conversion, the greatest, in 
history, 268 

Nationalism, and other similar ideas 
predominant in Turkey to-day, 
69-70; attitude of Indian Moslems 
toward, 104; a vital force among 
Moslems to-day, 10; in Palestine, 
65; in widely separated parts of 
the Moslem world one encounters 
the same fire of, 65; Moslem 
societies in the Dutch East Indies 
for the revival of religion or, 141; 
the outstanding idea fermenting in 
the minds of Moslem youth to-day, 
63 

Nationalist, journals of Afghanistan, 
two, 140; Movement, Al-Akhbar 
favours the Egyptian, 133 ; Move- 
ment in Egypt, Al-Ahram supports 
the, 133; Movement in Egypt, 
Al-Mokattam formerly hostile to 
the, 133; movements in other 
parts of the Moslem world, the 
Indian Moslem’s reaction to, 105 

National Moslem University of 
Aligarh, chief of the National 
Islamic Schools of India, 106; 
still the premier Moslem educa- 
tional institution of India, 106-7 

‘‘The Native Press of Egypt,’ in 
The Egyptian Mail, 1910, referred 


to, 134 

Near and Middle East, medical work 
for women in the, 220 

Near East, attitude of Moslem India 
toward emancipation of women in 





INDEX 


the, 107; demand for an educa- 
tion by Moslem women of the, 
212; extent and ethnic composi- 
tion of the Moslem, 21; parallel 
between Catholic countries of 
Europe and the, 23; polygamy in 
the, 224-7; Protestant missionary 
movement deeply influenced by 
transformation of the Moslem, 25 ; 
public education in the, 173 

Near East Relief, significance of 
educational work of the, 192 

Nejd, ‘Antar of, 158; the domain of 
Abdul Aziz, 329; see also Ibn 
Saud, King of Nejd. 

Neo-Platonist influence on Islam 
detected, a strong, 292-3 

The ‘‘ Nestorian ’’ Church, 263 

Nestorianism and Monophysitism due 
largely to the isolation of the early 
Eastern Church, 267 

Nestorians created an enormous 
Asiatic Church, 267 

Newspaper, in Egypt, the first Arabic, 
126; in 1880 the American Mission 
began to publish a Christian, 126; 
the first non-official self-supporting 
Turkish, 126; Lisan-ul-Hal be- 
came the leading, in Syria and 
the Near East, 126 

Newspapers and periodicals, Bolshe- 
vist, in Persia, 152-3; Bolshevist, 
in Turkey, 153; in Afghanistan, 
140; in Africa, 134-5; in Arabia, 
134; in the Dutch East Indies, 
140-2; in Egypt, 130-4; in 
Europe, America, and Australia, 
145-7; in India, 138-40; in 
India, list of Moslem, 383-90; in 
Japan, 140; in Mesopotamia, 134 ; 
in Morocco, 135; in Persia, 136-8 ; 


in Syria, 126; in Turkish and 
Arabic published in Turkey, a 
table of, 129; number of, in 


Constantinople, in 1914, 128; 
number of, in Java, 141; number 
of, in Persia, 136; number of 
Moslem, in Russia, 144; only 
threeor four Chinese-Mohammedan, 
in 1917, 143; Pan-Islamic ten- 
dency of, in Persia, 137-8; see 
Press ; see also Journals. 

New York, Arabic papers published 
in, 131 

Nicholson, R. A., The Mystics of 
Islam quoted, 298 

Nizam of Hyderabad conferred a 
pension on the deposed Caliph, 99 

North Africa Conference, findings 
of the, quoted, 180; referred to, 371 


411 


North-West Africa, the awakening 
of women in the inland towns of, 
234; brotherhoods of mystics and 
women in, 241; Egypt and Turkey 
in disfavour in, 235-6; girls 
learning to read in, 233; the gri 
of fear among native women of, 
242-3; influence of Europe upon 
the status of women in, 234-5 ; life 
of desert women in, 232; mountain 
women in, 232; polygamy in, 239; 
two main ethnic elements in, 236; 
urban life of Moslem women in, 231 

Notovitch, Nicolai, the weird story 
of Christ’s journey to India, by, 316 

Nuqaba, or four henchmen of the 
Sheikh al-Sajada, the, 297 


d’Ohsson, C., Histoire des Mongols 
quoted, 54 

Omar, Caliph, a decree of, 269 

Oppression, the effects of centuries 
of, upon the ancient Orthodox 
Churches, 272-3, 282 

Oran, a vigorous daily Press at, 135 

Orenburg, a centre of Moslem 
journalism, 144 

Organization, of the Conferences of 
Christian workers among Moslems, 
362-3; of the Qadiriya dervishes, 
296-8 

Oriental Churches, the ancient, 263 ; 
status of the, with reference to the 
evangelism of Islam, 374-6; see 
also Ancient Oriental Churches. 

Oriental Religions and Christianity 
referred to, 355 

Orthodox apologetic, stirring of new 
life in the old Moslem, 305 

Orthodox Eastern Church, The, 263 

Orthodoxy, the present-day apolo- 
getic literature of the old, 305-6 

Osmania University in Hyderabad, 
Deccan, conducted in Urdu, 106 

Ottoman, Caliph asserted to have 
forfeited his rights through in- 
ability to defend himself, 42; 
Caliphate, the, 47, 48; Sultan 
Caliph not by inheritance but 
because a Moslem king, 38 ; Sultan 
first became de facto Caliph when 
he entered into possession of the 
Sanctuaries, 39; Sultans, resolu- 
tion ended reign of the, 47-8 

Outposts of Christianity, the ancient 
Oriental Churches viewed as rem- 
nants of, 264 


Padang, Moslem periodicals pub- 
lished at, 141 


412 


Pagan Christs theory of Drews and 
. M. Robertson used in the 
‘Moslem attack on Christianity, 
310, 313 
Painting, the new drama has pro- 
moted the art of scene, 202; of 
pictures in Egypt never developed 
as an end in itself, 200 


Palestine, comprehensive — school 
system in, 174; the easy divorce 
system in, 226; educational 


systems more efficient in Egypt, 
portions of North Africa, and, 173 ; 
keen nationalistic feelings aroused 
in the Moslem World by the con- 
troversy between Jews and Arabs 
in, 65; restive under British pro- 
tectorate; 185; women not much 
interested in the political situation 
in, 219-20 

Palgrave, William Gifford, Narration 
of a Year’s Journey through Central 
and Eastern Arabia quoted and 
referred to, 3 

Pan-Islamic tendency of the Persian 
Press, 137-8 

Pan-Islamism, attitude of the Indian 
Moslem frankly that of, 94; the 
break between Turkey and, 70; 
Echos de V Islam an organ of, 145; 
has become impossible, 11; shat- 
tered in the mind of Moslem youth 
by the conception of the nation, 
63; a world-wide Association of, 
44 

Paris, nine points on the emancipa- 
tion of woman presented in the 
woman’s delegation in, 222-3 

Park, Robert E., The Immigrant 
Press and Its Control quoted, 146 

Patronage, and encouragement of 
artistic endeavour, need of state, 
204; Egyptian art suffers the need 
of local, 203 

Periodicals, Moslem, see Newspapers 
and periodicals. 

Persia, advance of Bolshevism into 
Moslem, 72; child labour in, 
restricted by law, 223-4; conditions 
in, produced by child marriage, 
220-2; ° dallying with idea of a 
republic, 186; discontent among 
thinking Moslems encountered by 
Robert E. Speer in, 17; divergence 
between fanatical priestly class and 
broad masses of modernist people 
in, 24; educational systems exist 
mainly on paper in, 173; educa- 
tion for girls successfully promoted 
by Persians themselves in, 214; 


INDEX 


the extent of present-day Moslem 
journalism in, 136-8; the feminist 
movement in, represented by 
Zehan, 137; First ‘“ National 
Church ”’ set up in, 266; friendly 
attitude toward Western schools 
in, 189; has adopted a constitu- 
tion, 10; opinion that the spirit of 
Islam and constitutional govern- 
ment are forever incompatible is 
widely expressed in, 16; Pan- 
Islamic tendency of the Press of, 
137-8; Patriarch and metropolitans 
of the Persian Church honoured by 
the Ilkhan rulers of, 268; poly- 
gamy in, 225-6; receptive attitude 
in, 191 ; Soviet propaganda active 
since 1921 in the Moslem Press of, 
152 

Persian, Aman-i-Afghan and Ittihad- 
1-Mashraqi published in, 140; 
Press, the Soviet influence con- 
tinues in the, 152-3 

Persian Church, endured the heaviest 
martyrdoms known to _ history, 
267; Ilkhan rulers of Persia 
honoured the Patriarch and metro- 
politans of the, 268; penetrated 
with its missionary work through 
Tibet into China and India, 267 

Persian Sketches quoted, 220-2 

Person Mohammeds in Lehre und 
Glaube seiner Gemeinde, Dte, re- 
ferred to, 320 

Perth, Australia, The Moslem Sun- 
shine published at, 147 

Peshawar, Moslem college at, men- 
tioned, 8 

Petrie, Professor Flinders, quoted, 353 

Peul, the Almamy, of Futa, 124 

Philadelphia, Arabic papers pub- 
lished in, 131 

Philippines, commercial relations of 
United States of America in the, 
114 

Philippopolis, a centre of Moslem 
literary activity in Bulgaria, 145 

Philo, the Jewish philosopher, men- 
tioned, 28 

Pilgrimage, duty of, made conditional 
in Koran on ability, 40; one 
unifying feature of Islamic system,. 
38-9; to Mecca and Medina duty of 
every Moslem, 39 

Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah, 
The, referred to, 356 

Policy, need for formulation of an 
Islamic, 115-16 

Polygamy, defence of, as a solution 
of thesocial evil, 306; discussedjin 





INDEX 


the Moslem Press, 147; founder 
of ‘‘The people of the Koran”’ 
quoted regarding, 9; in Moslem 
India, 256; in the Near East, 
224-7; in North-West Africa, 239 ; 
National Assembly of Albanians at 
Tirana prohibits, 9; younger men 
call Moslem, a curious antique, 9 

Polytheism, Christianity accused of, 
313 

Poona, Bombay Presidency Moslem 
Ladies’ Conference held at, 252-3 ; 
Bombay Provincial Moslem Ladies’ 
Conference held at, 107 

Pope Paul III, Bull of, 174-5 

Preaching of Islam, The, cited, 269 

Presentation of Christianity to Moslems, 
The, referred to, 374 

Press, the Arabic, found in nearly 
every great centre of the Moslem 
world, 130-1 ; arguments of liberal 
Christianity and Western infidelity 
used by the Moslem, 150; at once 
a proof of the unity of Islam and 
an index to the surging currents of 
thought, 123; Bolshevism in the 
Moslem, 152-3; the daily and 
weekly papers issued by _ the 
Moslem, 71; 1873-1901 a period 
of difficulty for the Turkish, 127; 
freedom of the, in Turkey, 16; 
growth of the Arabic, in Egypt, 132; 
held responsible for the revolu- 
tionary outbreak in Turkey, April 
13, 1909, 128; in Egypt, compara- 
tive freedom of the, 126; the 
influence of the Indian, 139; in 
many reforms Christian Missions 
have an ally in the Moslem, 153; 
July 25, 1908, marked the revival 
of the Turkish, 127; Mecca has 
given up its political influence to 
the, 124; the Moslem and Arabic, 
in the United States of America, 
146; Moslem, often speaks in 
terms of highest praise of Jesus 
Christ, 149-50; Moslems see a new 
agency for solidification in the, 13 ; 
of Cairo sympathetic during war 
with Turkey, 133; of Egypt 
victim of censorship and sup- 
pression during war period, 133; 
of Persia, Pan-Islamic tendency 
of the, 137; of Tunis has never 
been vigorous or important, 135; 
period between 1876 and 1908 one 
of coercion of the Turkish, 129-30 ; 
pears: survey of the, of the 

utch East Indies, 142; present- 

day achievements of the Turkish, 


~@ 


418 


129-30; the progressive Moslem, 
of the present day is forward-look- 
ing, 147; propaganda in the, for 
the Woman’s Movement in Egypt, 
223; the Russian Soviet has won 
over to the programme of the Third 
International some of the leaders of 
the Sarikat-Islam and their, 152; 
the Soviet influence continues in 
the Persian, 153; Soviet pro- 
paganda active since 1921 in the 
Persian, 152-3; Turkey’s defeat in 
the Balkan War a moral victory for 
the liberty of the, 128; typical 
topics of discussion of the present- 
day Moslem, 147; see also Journal- 
ism, Journals, and Newspapers. 

Press and Poetry of Modern Persia, 
The, referred to, 136 

* Press in Egypt, The,” cited, 132, 133 

Principles of Muhammadan Juns- 
prudence, The, quoted, 308 

Printing press, not introduced into 
Turkey until 1728, 125 

Prohibition movement promoted by 
the Moslem Press, 153 

Proposed Political, Legal, and Social 
Reforms under Moslem Rule cited, 
308 

Protestant missionary movement, 
deeply influenced by the trans- 
formation of the Moslem Near 
East, 25; hampered by distrust of 
natives of European powers, 29; 
has the, sufficient vital power to 
bring to Modern Islam a spiritual 
revival and religious reformation ? 
26, 29; Moslem missions the test 
of the, 27 

Pseudo-Dionysius, the Areopagite, of 
Alexandria, influenced strongly the 
course of Moslem mysticism, 292-3 

Public buildings, proposal to the 
Public Works Ministry of Egypt 
regarding, 203-4 

Public opinion regarding Moslem 
peoples, 117-18 

Punjab, list of Moslem newspapers in 
the, 387-90; Moslem population 
of the, 93; mumber of Moslem 
periodicals in the, 138 

Purdah, attitude of Indian ladies 
toward, 107; system, women of 
India still cling to the, 257 


Qadian, The Review of Religions 
published at, 138 

Qadiriya Order, development of the, 
296 

Queen Mary’s College, Madras, 252 


414 INDEX 


Quranic Doctrine of God, The, referred 
to, 347 


Race, conflict between Arabic and 
non-Arabic, 87-9; -conflict in- 
surmountable obstacle to peace, 79; 
the divorce of, from religion, 70 ; 
Science of, 79-80 

“* Racists,’ 88 

Rahim, Sir Abdur, Muhammadan 
Jurisprudence quoted, 308 

Rahmatu’llah on the Koran, 316 

Raiq, Ibn, usurped power in A.H., 
324, 37 

Ramadhan moon, the, 241 

Rashdall, Dr. Hastings, referred to, 
313 

Rasgrad, a centre of Moslem literary 
activity in Bulgaria, 145 

Raymond Lull quoted, 344 

Redemption, the core of the issue 
between Christianity and Islam, 
314-15 

Reform, present-day Moslem journal- 
ism devotes much space to the call 
for social and religious, 152 

Reformation, can missionary Pro- 
testantism bring modern Islam a 
religious? 26; renaissance and 
Protestant, 23 

Reforms, in Islam an acknowledg- 
ment of charges as to its historic 
influence and tendency, 352-4; in 
Islam due largely to contact with 
Christianity, 354; the Moslem 
Press an ally of Christian missions 
in many, 153 

Reforms Act, in India, Moslems op- 
posed to further extension of the, 


105 

Relations, between the ancient 
Oriental Churches and Western 
Christianity improved, 274-5; 
between Far Eastern and Near 
Eastern Moslems, 94; between 
Islam and Christianity brought 
much closer by Zaghloul Pasha, 
62-3; commercial, of Great 
Britain and United States of 
America in Moslem lands, 114; 
of the sexes influenced by cinema 
showing scenes from Western life, 
6 


7 
Religion, emancipation of Moslem 
women of India along the line of, 
258-9; increased freedom in, 
viii; re-evaluation of Islam as a, 


Vili 
Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, 
The, cited, 299 


Religious life, of the Arab woman, 
the, 241; of Moslem women in the 
cities and towns of North-West 
Africa, 241-2 

Religious systems, 
coercive, 329-30 

Renaissance, existence of the Arabic, 
183; failure of Westerners to 
realize the significance of the 
Arabic, 184; in contemporary 
Islam and that of Judaism in the 
first century, 28; the Moslem 
political, 184; of Arabic culture, 
the, viil; part played by Arab 
learning in the, 170-1; situation 
changed in the Moslem Near East 
in the last twenty-five years by 
the world, 21; some _ editors 
proclaim, and some sound the 
death-knell of, an Islamic, 151 

Republican form of government, 
Caliphate declared to be incon- 
sistent with, 98 

Resht, has four newspapers, 136; 
The Red Revolution distributed 
gratuitously at, 152 

Resurrection, the swoon theory of 
the, 315-16 

Revival, hardly possible that there 
will come out of Islam itself a 
strong religious, 25; has mission- 
ary Protestantism sufficient vital 
power to bring to modern Islam a 
spiritual . ? 26 

Rice, W. a "Crusaders of the Twen- 
tieth Century quoted, 343, 348; 
referred to, 347 

Ridha, Sheikh Rashid, again draws 
on Drews, Kalthoff, and J. M. 
Robertson, 313; Agqidat as-Salb 
wa’l-Fida referred to, 315; editing 
Mohammed ‘Abdw’s, Tafsir, 317- 
18; has planned a Missionary 
Training School for Moslems in 
Cairo, 309 ; Nazra fi Kuiub al Ahad 
al Jadid referred to, 312; the 
spiritual legatee of Mohammed 
‘Abdu, 133; Dr. Tawfik Sidqi, a 
disciple of, 312; uses the Pagan 
Christs theory in attack on Chris- 
tianity, 310, 313 


clash of rival 


Riggs, Rev. Charles T., quotation of © 


translation from Igdam, 9 
Robert College, 74 
Robertson, J. M., Pagan Christs 
theory. of Drews and, 310, 313 
Rome, nine points in the emancipa- 
tion of woman read before the 
International Woman’ s Conven- 
tion at, 222-3 


—— ee 


INDEX 


Ronaldshay, Lord, India, a Bird’s- 
Eye View, quoted, 12; referred to, 
355 

Ruschuk, a centre of Moslem literary 
activity in Bulgaria, 145 

Russia, conversion of, by the Byzan- 
tine nation the greatest national 
conversion of history, 268; extent 
of present-day Moslem journalism 
in, 144-5; number of Moslem 
newspapers in, 144-5 

Sacrifice, Moslems repelled by 
Christ’s, 333-4 

St. Paul’s College, mentioned, 74 

Saints, the cult of, the outstanding 
feature of the Moslem masses, 299 

Salim, Sultan, founder of the Otto- 
man Caliphate, 48 

Salvation, concept of, as saving 
health of society slow to dawn on 
religious world, 192 

Samarkand, 144 

Sanctuaries, divided between Otto- 
man and Moghul Caliphates, 39; 
should be in possession of Moslem 
power, 39 

Sanctuary, of Mecca in the hands of 
the Wahhabi ruler, the, 40; re- 
covery of the, from Wahhabis the 
first duty of the Caliph, 42 

Sarikat-Islam, a Moslem society in 
the Dutch East Indies, the, 141; 
the Russian Soviet has won over 
certain leaders and sections of the 
Press of the, 152 

Saud, Ibn, King of Nejd, Indian 
Moslems welcomed attack on 
Hussein by, ror; mentioned by 
the Moslems of India as possible 
Caliph, tor; proclaimed saviour 
of the Holy Places of Islam, ror 

School, of fine arts has been estab- 
lished in Egypt, 202; the first 
government girls’, in Egypt, 217; 
for girls in Smyrna, a fine training, 
212; work in North-West Africa, 
hospital and, 244 

Schools, Amir of Afghanistan has 
instituted for nomadic tribes 
travelling, 8; being opened in 
Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, 
233; contributions of the West- 
ern, I95; English, French, and 
German in the curricula of all, in 
Moslem lands, 5; for Indian 
Moslem girls, need of Christian, 
252; free access to higher, asked 
for all women wishing to study, 
222-3; growth in enrolment of 


415 


girls in Egyptian Government, 213 ; 
history of art to be introduced into 
the Egyptian, 203; in Egypt, 
Moslem young women attend, 214 ; 
in Smyrna, training departments 
in the public, 212; large sums of 
money allocated to Egyptian 
industrial, 203; movement for 
better, in Persia, Turkey, Arabia, 
Egypt, North Africa, and Malaysia, 
8; National Islamic, 106; of the 
Jesuit Fathers, the Fréres, the 
Mission Laique, or the Italians, 
174-5; of Western learning, in- 
crease in numbers of Moslem 
youth in, viii; plans for erection 
in Egypt of new arts and crafts, 
202; students sent to Europe on 
educational missions from Egyp- 
tian, 201; thousands of Indian 
girls now studying in primary and 
middle, and scores in high, 252; 
under patronage of Protestant 
missions, 172 

Science, development of, in eleventh 
century, 171; the general effort 
in Moslem lands to _ reconcile 
ancient Islam and modern, 13; 
Moslems show a swiftly increasin 
appreciation of Western applie 
technical, 66 

Scientific method, official seal placed 
on the, 174 

Scriptures, the attack on the validity 
of the, 311-12; the theory of 
Abrogation of the Christian, 313 

Secular point of view increasingly 
evident in Moslem youth of to-day, 
69 

Seleucia-Ctesiphon, a base of ancient 
Oriental Christendom, 266 

Sell, Edward, The Faith of 
quoted, 56-7 

Semarang, Moslem periodicals pub- 
lished at, 141 

Senussi movement in Italian Tripoli, 


Islam 


26 

Sermons of al-Jilani devoid of mystic. 
lore, 295 

Sévres, Treaty of, 95 

Shafi, Lady Mohammed, of Simla, 
254 

Shanghai, a new International Mos- 
lem Association, at, 143 

Shapur II, The Persian Church en- 
dured heaviest martyrdom known 
to history in reign of, 267 

Sharia, changes in the, 216 ;, Moslems 
warned not to violate, 148; Tur- 
key proposed to do away with, 


416 


53; whole life of Moslem popula- 
tion regulated by, 23 

Sharja merchant, 325 

Sharwish, Sheikh, 309 

** Shehedi, shehedi,’’ the formula of 
witness to Mohammed, 241 

Sheikh al-Islam, or Mufti, 43, 125 

Sheikh al-Sajada, the, 296-7 

Shelter-homes, need of, among Ka- 
byle and Arab women, 239 

Shias, adherents of Ali, 35; do not 
accept Caliphate of Ottoman 
Sultans, 55-6; the great heretical 
sect of Islam, 329; of Bahrein, 329 

Shii, 93 

Shiraz has seven papers, 136 

Shumla, a centre of Moslem literary 
activity in Bulgaria, 145 

Shu‘ ib, 83, 88 

Shu‘ tbiyya, 88 

Sidqi, Dr. Tawfik, 312 

Simon, Gottfried, quoted, 17 

Sin, and righteousness, Moslems hold 
legalistic ideas regarding, 349-51 ; 
the Moslem and Christian concep- 
tions of, 349-51; the Moslem 
definition of, 350 

Sina, Ibn, recognized authority on 
interpretation of Aristotle, 170-1 

Sindhi, number of Moslem periodicals 
in, 138 

Sivas, Turkish papers published in, 


129 

Smith, R. Bosworth, Carlyle, and 
others, Muslim Tract Depot prints 
pamphlets giving favourable judg- 
ments of, 311; in an address 
before the Fellows of Zion’s College, 
quoted, 354-5 

Smyrna, a fine training school for 
girls in, 212; much money being 
devoted to teacher-training depart- 
ments in public schools in, 212 

Snow, Hamid, Moslem Prayer Book 
and Catechism by, 309 

Social, and religious reform, present- 
day Moslem journalism devotes 
much space to the call to, 152; 
aspirations, new, vii; changes in 
Islam revolutionary, 8; _ evil, 
attempt to defend polygamy as a 
solution of the, 306; standards for 
Moslem women, the setting up of 
new, 255; work specially needed, 


373 
Societies, formed by women in Egypt 
after the war, 217; for the revival 
of religion or nationalism in the 
Dutch East Indies, Moslem, 141 
Socotra, Island of, 367 


INDEX 


Sofia, a centre of Moslem literary 
activity in Bulgaria, 145 

Solo, Moslem periodicals published 
at, I41 

South Africa, one or two vernacular 
and a Gujarati-English paper con- 
ducted by Moslems in, 135 

South America, Arabic papers pub- 
lished in, 131 

Soviet, influence continues in the 
Persian Press, 153; influence over 
the Moslem Press of the Russian, 
152-3; propaganda active in the 
Moslem Press of Persia since 1921, 
152; the Russian, has its agents 
in Java, 152; Russian Moslems 
held by the régime of the, 11 

Spain, children of al-Qadir became 
heads of Qadiri orders in, 296 

Speer, Dr. Robert E., cited, 16, 17 

Spirit of Islam, The, referred to, 256, 


346 

Spiritual revolt against formalism in 
Islam, 17 

Srinagar, the tomb of Jesus asserted 
to be in, 316 

Stamboul, most significant literary 
contribution to Amman from, 159 ; 
prevalence of unveiled women in, 


216 

State, the Moslem Indian view of the 
separation of Church and, 103-4; 
movement toward separation of 
Church and, 186; Turkey has 
separated Church and, 10 

Student Christian Movement in the 
Near East, referred to, 375 

Student Volunteer Missionary Move- 
ment in the West, 286 

Sudan, polygamy still the rule in the, 
226-7; women and girls from 
Islamic homes learning the value 
of education in the, 215 

Sufis, or mystic teachers of Islam, 292 

Sufism, fear of Moslem world as to 
orthodoxy of, dispelled, 293 

Sulu, the Sultan of, 17 

Sumatra, and other islands, news- 
papers of, 141; progress in, 142 

Sunni mentioned as one of the Moslem 
sects of India, 93 

Supernatural Religion, by Walter R. 
Cassel, referred to, 312 

Superstition a dominant factor in the 
life of native women in North-West 
Africa, 242-3 

Surabaya, a centre of Moslem publica- 
tions in the Dutch East Indies, 
141; Moslem periodicals published 
at, 141 


INDEX 


Surveys in certain Moslem fields 
show excessive concentration of 
missionary forces in certain centres 
to neglect of rest of field, 368 

Swahili, Mambo Leo a pioneer of the 
Press in, 135 

Switzerland, Arabic papers 
lished in, 131 

Syria, adoption of methods of 
Western higher criticism to make 
Islam conform to modern thought 
in, 14; the extent of present-day 
journalism in Turkey and, 125-30 ; 
immediate problem adjustment of 
policy and mandatory power in, 
188-9; the Moslem women’s 
educational movement in, 214-15 ; 
polygamy and the divorce evil in, 
226; restive under French pro- 
tectorate, 185 ; Turkish and Arabic 
papers published in, 129; the 
Woman’s Movement in, 219 

Syriac, Christian culture, present 
Mongolian alphabets relics of, 267 ; 
language and liturgy still to be 
heard on the Malabar Coast, 267 

** Syrian Orthodox’’ Church, The, 
263 


pub- 


Tabari, Abi, Annales quoted, 269-70 

Tabari, Ali, 305 

Tabriz, Azad, a paper published in, 
quoted, 353; has four news- 
papers, 136 

Tackle, The Rev. J., of India, quoted, 


17 

Tafstr, 317-18 

Tamerlane, from Khalid to, 264; 
invasion, the, 267 

Tamil, edition of The Islamic Review, 
published at Madras, 145 ; number 
of Moslem periodicals in, 138 

Tangier, the first newspaper pub- 
lished at, 135 

Tantawi, Tafsivy referred to, 317 

Tanzim, or the organization and im- 
provement of the Moslem com- 
munity in India, 106 

Tartars, invasion of the, 171 

Tashkent, Zngilab (Revolution) and 
Kyzyl Bairak (The Red Flag) both 
published at, 152; Moslem news- 
papers at, 144 

Taymiyya, Ibn, 305 

Teachers’ Association held a meeting 
in 1924, in Angora, 212 

Teacher-training departments, public 
schools in Smyrna devoting much 
money to, 212 : 

Tehran, has 18 papers, 136; Soviet 


28 


417 


propaganda active in the Moslem 
Press of Persia since the appoint- 


ment in 1921t of a_ Bolshevik 
Minister at, 152 
Temour, Aishat at, the Egyptian 


poetess, 216 

Ten Great Religions quoted, 347-8 

Terazzi, Count de, collection of news- 
papers and journals gathered by, 
131; number of Egyptian papers 
in the collection of, 132 

Textile industries in Egypt, 206-8 

Third International and the Sarikat- 
Islam, 152 

Tibet, penetration of early Persian 
Church into, 267 

Tiflis, an important Moslem centre, 
144 

Tirana, National 
Albanians at, 9 

Tlemsen, a vigorous daily Press at, 


Association of 


135 

Tokyo, The Islamic Fraternity pub- 
lished at, 140 

Toleration, need of exercising more, 
in approach to Moslems, x 

Tolstoi, an Arabic translation of the 
favourable account of Mohammed 
and Islam by, 311 

Touaregs, a branch of the Kabyles 
inhabiting the recesses of the 
desert, 236 

Tourists and travellers from the 
West exerting an increasing in- 
fluence upon Islam, 4 

Traditions, becoming more and more 
neglected, 308; fictitious, 81; 
missionaries apt to assume that 
Islam to-day is the religion of the 
Koran and the, 300 

Training of missionaries and native 
workers, 373 

Trans-Jordan, 157 

Tripoli has only one or two Arabic 
papers, 135 

Troitsk, an important Moslem centre, 


144 

Trotter, I. Lilias, 368 

Tunis, Al Bustani and Al Muhatyr 
published in, 135; As Sawwab 
published in, 135 ; first newspaper 
published in, in 1862, 134; Mur- 
shid, a newspaper of, 135; Party, 
the Young, 135; Press of, never 
vigorous or important, 135 

Tunisia, excellently organized schools 
being opened in, 233; literacy 
statistics of women in, 234 

Turkey, Abdul Mejid Effendi ex- 
pelled from, 48; Agha Khan and 


418 


Ameer Ali appealed to Govern- 
ment of, 51; and Egypt in dis- 
favour in North-West Africa, 
235-6; Angora new capital of, 51 ; 
the beginning of journalism in, 
126; Bolshevik mewspapers in, 
153; the break between, and Pan- 
Islamism, 70; Cairo Press during 
the war sympathetic to, 133; 
despotic dictatorship in, 25 ; educa- 
tional systems exist mainly on 
paper in, 173; effect of the war on, 
128; ended reign of Ottoman 
sultans, 47-8; the extent of pre- 
sent-day journalism in Syria and, 
125-30; freedom of the Press in, 
16; Grand National Assembly of, 
47, 48, 49, 51; the hard, bright 
flame of nationalism in, 72; has 
lost her peculiar relationship to 
rest of Moslem world by abolition 
of the Caliphate, 11; hostility to 
Western enterprises and schools in, 
187-8 ; Indian Moslems prefer to 
see Caliphate restored to; Io1; 
legislation in, to ameliorate the 
condition of women, 222-3; more 
than 800 journals published after 
the revolution in, 130; nominal 
republic in, 185; one of the 
tragic events of modern history 
that Caliphate has been given up 
by, 25; an organized movement 
for education of women in, 212; 
past of Western education closed 
chapter in, 187; polygamy in, 


224; presents new situation to 
Western educators, 188; the 
printing press introduced into, 


125; progress in the emancipation 
of women in, 215-16; proposed to 
do away with the Sharia and the 
medressés, 53 ; secular and national- 
istic ideas in, 69-70; separation of 
Church and State in, 10;  sus- 
picious attitude in, 191; women 
of, lead in the educational move- 
ment of the Islamic world, 212 

Turki, Arabic, and Persian languages 
represented in the Press of Bu- 
khara, 144 

Turkish and Arabic, a table of news- 
papers published in, 129 

Turkistan, Ingqilab and Kyzyl Bairak 
preach communism to all, 152; 
little progress in the life of women 
in Chinese, 224; polygamy the 
rule only among those who can 
afford it in, 226 

Turks, invasion-of the, 171 


INDEX 


Ufa, the headquarters of the Moham- 
medan ecclesiastical assembly, 144 

Ulama, meeting of, held in Cairo, 
53; or Scribes interpreters of the 
law, 50 

United Provinces, list of Moslem 
newspapers in, 385-6; number of 
Moslem periodicals in the, 138 

Unity of Islam, 90 

Unoccupied areas, of the Moslem 
field, population of the, 367; of 
the Moslem field, under-occupied 


and, 367-8 
Unorthodox Moslem apologetic, 
addressed in the main to the 


Western educated classes, 311; 
better instructed than the ortho- 
dox, 307; freer than the ortho- 
dox, 307; uses Christianity’s own 
methods, 309 

Urdu, edition of The Islamic Review 
published at Lahore, 145; num- 
ber of Moslem periodicals in, 138 


Vambéry, Armin, Western Culture in 
Eastern Lands referred to, 356 

Valuation of men, Christ’s, 325-8 

Van, Turkish paper published in, 

129 

Vaniyambadi, Moslem college at, 8 

Varna, a centre of literary activity in 
Bulgaria, 145 

Veil, rapid disappearance of the, in 
Egypt, 218, 219 


' Wafd, Al-Balagh inspired by the, 133 


Wahhabi, conqueror to permit pil- 
grimage, 41; fraternity most 
fanatical of Sunni sects, 328; 
mentioned as one of the Moslem 
sects found in India, 93; Move- 
ment a result of the attempt of 
Islam to meet new conditions, 13-- 
14; Sultan has on his side the logic 
of the ‘‘ stricken field, ’’41 ; warriors 
taken prisoners and used for road- 
mending, 157 

Waite, Arthur Edward, quoted, 291 

Wakil Sheikh al-Sajada, defined, 297 

War, effect of the, upon Islam revolu- 
tionary, 6; effect of the, on Turkey, 
128° 
life of women in India, 249; 
Moslem Indians and the, 94-5; 
Moslem youth has lost the com- 
placency that marked its attitude 
toward Islam before the, 67; of 
Succession, first, 35; shattering 
impact of the, in influencing the 
mind of the Moslem youth, 67 


influence of the, upon the — 


INDEX 


Weakening and disintegration of 
Islam, 363-4 

Weltevreden, Batavia, Moslem perio- 
dicals published at, 141 

West, attitude toward the ancient 
Oriental Churches held by Chris- 
tians of the, 264; opportunity of 
the Christian, to impart to the 
ancient Eastern Churches its 
fresher idealism, 265; scientific 
method of education developed in 
the, 174 

Western, civilization keenly debated 
by Moslems, 65; education 
awakening the minds of the 
Moslem youth, 4; education 
established fact in Moslem lands, 
179; education, results of, 180; 
educators facing new situation in 
Turkey, 188; governments, hos- 
tility to, vii; ideas on. secular 
subjects do not bring Islam nearer 
to Christianity, 69; imperialism a 
hindrance to Christian missions, 
325; imperialism, the missionary 
as a lieutenant for, 327; infidelity 
used by Moslem Press to combat 
Scriptures and Christian Missions, 
150; intellectual debt to Arab 
peoples, 169-72; languages, a 
means of contact of Islamic with 
non-Moslem lands in the increasing 
knowledge of, 5; learning, in- 
crease in the numbers of Moslem 
schools and colleges of, viii; life 
and thought have had their effect 
on Moslem apologetic, 305 ; models, 
governmental systems fashioned 
on, 174; Oriental method of 
education opposed to, 176-7; 
reading in Moslem lands, 68; 
school, contributions of the, 195; 
technical science imitated by the 
Moslems in raising the standard of 
living, 66 ; ways of life, the leaning 
of the young Turk and the young 
Egyptian toward, 70 

Western Christianity, and the ancient 
Oriental Churches, improvement in 
relations between, 274-5; the 
duty of, toward the ancient 
Oriental Churches, 274, 275-6 

Western Civilization in tis Economic 
Aspect in Ancient Times quoted, 57 

Western Culture in Eastern Lands 
referred to, 356 

Whately, Archbishop, quoted, 378 

Wilson, Samuel Graham, Modern 
Movements Among Moslems, quota- 
tion from Lord Houghton cited, 3 


419 


Woking, group have published John 
Davenport’s Apology for Muham- 
mad and the Quran, and other 
books, 311; The Islamic Review 
published at, 145, quoted, 151; 
version of the Ahmadiya Com- 
mentary on the Koran, 313 

Woking Koran, The, see Holy 
Qur'an. 

Woman’s Movement, in Iraq, 217-18 ; 
in Syria, 219 

Women, abroad for study, Ministry 
of Education in Egypt sending 
young, 213; and the new day in 
the Islamic world, 70; Arab and 
Kabyle, compared, 240; the 
Association of Egyptian, for Social 
and Intellectual Improvement, 
217; attend mission schools in 
Egypt, Moslem young, 214; 
attitude of Indian Moslem, toward 
feminist movements in Europe and 
America, 107; Bible stories in 
Mussalmani-Bengali prepared for 
Moslem village, 253-4; brother- 
hoods of mystics and, in North- 
West Africa, 241; character, life, 
and status of the Kabyle, 237-8; 
character of the Arab, 243 ; classes 
of, in India reached by the educa- 
tion movement, 251; conspicuous 
examples of leadership among 
Indian Moslem, 254; eagerness in 
India to promote the cause of 
education for, 252; elevation of 
status of, viii; emancipation of 
Moslem Indian, along the line of 
religion, 258-9; enthusiasm in 
Mesopotamia for the education of, 
214; free access to all higher 
schools asked for, 222-3 ; in Cairo, 
Lady Byng formed an_Inter- 
national Club for, 217; in the 
cities and towns of North-West 
Africa, Moslem, 241-2; in Egypt 
after the war, societies formed by, 
217; in India, literacy of, 250- 
1; in India, magazines for, 253; 
in India, changes in the life of, 
249; in the Moslem world still 
unreached probably number 
100,000,000, 368; in Palestine not 
interested in political situation, 
219-20; in the Near and Middle 
East, medical work for, 220; in 
the Near East beginning to demand 
an education, Moslem, 212; in 
Stamboul, prevalence of unveiled, 
216; in the Sudan learning the 
value of an education, 215; in 


4:20 


Turkey, an organized movement 
for the education of, 212; Indian 
attitude toward the emancipation 
of, 107; influence of the Caliphate 
agitation upon the life of Indian, 
249; influence of Europe upon the 
status of, in North-West Africa, 
234-5; legislation to ameliorate 
the condition of, 222-3; life of 
Bedouin, 232; life of desert, in 
North-West Africa, 232; literacy 
statistics of, in Algeria, Tunisia, 
and Morocco, 234; literature for 
Indian, 253; little progress in the 
life of, in Chinese Turkistan, 224 ; 
low state of education among, a 
cause of the backwardness of 
Islamic civilization, 7; the mar- 
riage relation and Indian Moslem, 
255; mountain, in North-West 
Africa, 232; the need of books for 
Mohammedan, 254; need of 
shelter-homes for the Kabyle and 
Arab, 239; the new freedom of, 
and the agitation over plural 
marriages, 8; nine points on the 
emancipation of, 222-3; of Egypt, 
literacy statistics among the, 214 ; 
of India, effect of the emancipation 
of women in Egypt and Turkey 
upon the, 249; of India, literacy 
statistics among the, 249; of 
India, professions entered by the, 
254-5; of India still cling to the 
purdah system, 257; of North- 
West Africa, awakening of, 234; 
of North-West Africa, the grip of 
fear in the life of the native, 242-3 ; 
of Turkey lead in the educational 
movement of the Islamic world, 
212; progress of the education of, 
in Egypt, 212-13; progress in the 
emancipation of, in Turkey, 215- 
16; religious life of the, 241; the 
setting up of new social standards 
for, 255; the significance of the 
Press to Moslem, 153; sweeping 
social change in Moslem countries 
greatly aided by the new education 
reaching, 9; the Syrian Educa- 


INDEX 


tional Movement among, 214; 
taking a prominent part in the 
revival of art in Egypt, 208; 
urban life of Moslem, in North- 
West Africa, 231 

World War, 184, 187 


Yaballaha III, 268 

Yemen, Turkish paper published in, 
129. 

Young, importance in every Moslem 
field of work for the, 371-2 

Young Tunis Party, the, 135 

Young Turk Movement, the, 184 

‘“ Young Woman’s Club, The,’ in 
Egypt, 217 

Youth, complacency no _ longer 
characteristic of Moslem, 67 ; ideal 
of Pan-Islamism shattered by the 
nationalistic conception in the 
mind of the Moslem, 63; national- 
ism has replaced other move- 
ments in the mind of Turkish, 72 ; 
of Islam to-day actuated pre- 
dominantly by secular ideas, 69, 
70; unprecedented awakening of 
the Arab, 13 

Yiin-nan-fu, The Islamitic Review 
published at, 143 


Zaghloul Pasha, Saad, Al-Balagh 
inspired by, 133; mentioned, 61, 
216; significance of, 62 

Zaghloulist, Al-Siassa anti-, 133; 
Wadinnil until the fall of the 
Government resolutely, 133 

Zia, the poet of Turkish nationalism, 
quoted, 105 

‘ Ziara’’ pilgrimage, the, 242 

Ziky of women in the desert, 241 

Zion’s College, an address of Mr. R. 
Bosworth Smith before the Fellows 
of, quoted, 354-5 

Zwemer, S. M., The Moslem Doctrine 
of God referred to, 347; cited, 15, 
16; ‘‘A Moslem View of Chris- 
tianity,” in The Missionary Review 
of the World, referred to, 150; 
quoted, 93; Raymond Lull quoted, 


344 


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